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It is referred to indirectly in The ''Byzantine World Era'Canon III''' of was gradually replaced in the [[Orthodox Church]] by the '''[[Quinisext Councilw:Anno Domini|Christian Era]]''', which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the was utilized initially by Patriarch [[Fifth Ecumenical CouncilTheophanes I of Constantinople|FifthTheophanes I Karykes]] and in 1597, afterwards by Patriarch [[Sixth Ecumenical Council|SixthCyril Lucaris]] Councilsin 1626, as follows::and then formally established by the Church in 1728.<ref>"Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘHE, τόμ.09, εκδ.Μαρτίνος Αθ. as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, in the last fourth [[Indiction]]Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.<br>(''"Ecumenical Patriarchate"'in the year six thousand one hundred '. '''Religious and ninety [6190]Ethical Encyclopedia''', Vol. 9, Athens, 1966. p.778.)."</ref>Meanwhile as Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited the Orthodox Calendar based on the ''Byzantine Era''The Rudder (Pedaliontranslated into Slavonic)'': Of . After the metaphorical ship collapse of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of Byzantine Empire in 1453, the Orthodox Christiansera continued to be used by Russia, or all which witnessed millennialist movements in Moscow in AD 1492 (7000 AM) due to the sacred and divine canons end of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied church calendar. It was only in AD 1700 that the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained ''Byzantine Era'' in Russia was changed to the vernacular [[Julian Calendar]] by way [[w:Peter I of rendering them more intelligible to Russia|Peter the less educatedGreat]]. Comp<ref>Prof. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a MonkCharles Ellis (University of Bristol). First printed and published A[http://www.Dlitencyc.1800com/php/stopics. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (Kesisoglou the Caesarian988-1917) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: ]. ''The Orthodox Christian Educational SocietyLiterary Encyclopedia''. 25 September, 1957; Repr2008., New York, N</ref>.YIt still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today.: Luna Printing CoSeptember AD 2000 began the year 7509 AM.<ref group="note">To convert our era to the Byzantine era, 1983)add 5509 years from September to December, and 5508 years from January to August.</ref>
When Russia received Orthodox Christianity from Byzantium, she inherited ===Earliest Christian Sources on the Age of the Orthodox Calendar based World===The earliest extant Christian writings on the ''Creation Era''. After age of the world according to the collapse Biblical chronology are by [[Theophilus of the Byzantine Empire in Antioch]] (AD 1453115-181), the sixth bishop of Antioch from the Apostles, in his apologetic work ''To Autolycus'Creation Era',<ref>[[Theophilus of Antioch]]. '' continued Theophilus of Antioch to be used by Russia Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (translated into SlavonicChronology from Adam)- Chap. In AD 1492 XXVIII (7000 AMLeading Chronological Epochs) there were millennialist movements in Moscow due to the end of the church calendar. It was only </ref> and by [[w:Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]] (AD 200-245) in AD 1700 that the his ''Creation EraFive Books of Chronology'' in Russia was changed to the <ref>[[Julian Calendarw:Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]] by Peter . ''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the GreatChronography of Julius Africanus.''</ref>Prof. Charles Ellis (University Both of these early Christian writers, following the [[Septuagint]] version of Bristol). the [[http://wwwOld Testament]], determined the age of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec<ref name=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988ROSE-1917)GENESIS>Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Literary EncyclopediaOrthodox Christian Vision''. 25 September[[St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood]], 2008Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>. It still forms the basis of traditional Orthodox calendars up to today. The year AD 2000 was 7508 AM. September 2008 marked the beginning of the year 7516 of this era.
==Important Early Calendars==During :An immense intellectual effort was expended during the Hellenistic period of Late Antiquity in the Mediterranean world there were three highly accredited calendars, namely: : * the by both Jews and [[Paganism|pagans]] to date [[w:Babylonian calendarCreation according to Genesis|Babyloniancreation,]], descendant [[Great Flood of Noah|the Sumerian calendarflood]], [[exodus]], and basic contributor to the [[w:Hebrew calendarSolomon's Temple|Hebrew Biblical calendarbuilding of the Temple]]; : * ... In the course of their studies, men such as [[w:Egyptian calendarTatian|EgyptianTatian of Antioch]], (flourished in use since at least 2550 BC180), which institutionalized a year that was 365 days long[[Clement of Alexandria]] (died before 215), being divided into 12 months [[Hippolytus of 30 days each; and : * the Rome]] (died in 235), [[w:Olympiad#EraSextus Julius Africanus|GreekJulius Africanus]] of Jerusalem (''Era of the Olympiads''died after 240). Pliny the Elder, the Great Roman erudite scholar, attempted<ref>Historia Naturalis, XVIII, 210.</ref> to promote the Roman calendar as modified by Julius Caesar (i.e. the [[Julian CalendarEusebius of Caesarea]]in Palestine (260-340) at , and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers of the same levelHellenistic period, as a ‘fourth calendar’thereby allowing discernment of more distant scholarship.<ref>Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin MegalommatisBen Zion Wacholder. [http://www''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.buzzle'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium61, No.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]3 (Jul. Sept, 1968), pp. 8, 2007451-452.</ref>.
==Earliest Christian Sources on The Hellenistic Jewish writer [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/demetrius.html Demetrius the Chronographer] (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Age Kings of Judea'' which dealt with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology; he computed the World==The earliest extant Christian writings on the age date of the world according to the Biblical chronology are by [[w:Theophilus Great Flood of AntiochNoah|Theophilusthe flood]] (AD 115-181), and the sixth bishop birth of Antioch from [[Abraham]] exactly as in the Apostles[[Septuagint]], in his apologetic work and first established the ''To Autolycus'',<ref>Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol.2, pp.118-21.</ref> and by [[w:Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]] (AD 200-245) in his 'Annus Adami'Five Books of Chronology'' <ref>Ante-Nicene Fathers. vol.6, pp.130-38.</ref>. Both Era of these early Christian writersAdam'', following the [[Septuagint]] version antecedent of the [[Old Testamentw:Hebrew_calendar#Epoch_year|Hebrew ''World Era'']], determined the age and of the world to have been about 5,530 years at the birth of Christ.<ref>Fr. [[Seraphim RoseByzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian]]. and Byzantine ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian VisionCreation Eras''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. p.236.</ref>.
From a scholarly point of view as well, Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the Church Fathers on this subject are of vital significance ===Alexandrian Era===The ''' ''"Alexandrian Era"'' ''' (Greek: ''' ''Κόσμου ἔτη κατ’ Ἀλεξανδρεῖς'''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the Septuagint, as compared to the Hebrew text'')developed in AD 412, in that through was the Christian chronographers a window precursor to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers''Byzantine Era''. After the initial attempts by [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and others<refgroup="note">The Hellenistic Jewish writer Demetrius (flourishing 221-204 B.C.) wrote ''On the Kings ' ''Era of JudeaAntioch'' ''' dealing with biblical exegesis, mainly chronology, who computed the date of the flood (5492 BC) and the birth of Abraham exactly as in the Septuagint, and who established the ''' ''ANNUS ADAMIEra of Alexandria'' ''' ; Eratosthenes of Cyrene (275-194 B.C.5502 BC) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; Eupolemuswere originally two different formations, a Palestinian Jew differing by 10 years. They were both much in use by the early Christian writers attached to the Churches of [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and a friend [[Church of Judah MaccabeeAntioch|Antioch]]. However after the year AD 284 the two eras coincided, writing in 158 B.Csettling on 5492 BC.There are, consequently, two distinct eras of Alexandria, is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with one being used before and the theory of other after the Mosaic origin accession of cultureDiocletian. By the time (''"Epoch: Era of Antioch and Era of the first century BAlexandra."'' In: ''' ''[http://books.Cgoogle.ca/books?id=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history , and had gained international circulation: Alexander Polyhistor political economy].'' '''(flourishing in 85-35 BVol.C3, Part 1).); Varro (116-27 BGlasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841. p.C73.); Ptolemy </ref>, the Alexandrian computation of the date of Mendes (50 Bcreation was worked out to be [[March 25|25 March]] 5493 BC.C<ref>Elias J.); Apion (first century ABickerman.D''Chronology of the Ancient World''.); Thrasyllus (before A2nd edition.DCornell University Press. 36); and Thallus (first century A1980.Dp.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus73.</ref> is preserved:.
:"In addition the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in traditional Jewish understanding of the thirteenth [[indiction]]'''creation "days" of Genesis is that they are literal as well, as virtually all the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountainsRabbis have understood in commentaries from Talmudic,Midrashic and Rabbinic sources..."<ref>Paul StephensonJames-Griffiths. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepagewww.macanswersingenesis.comorg/paulstephensoncreation/transv26/scyl2i2/tradition.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.</ref><ref>[[w: Abraham ibn Ezra|Ibn Ezra]], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''The Year 6508, in Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the 13th IndictionPentateuch: the Byzantine dating system]"Genesis (Bereshit)''. November 2006Vol.1 (Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.</ref>.
By * Professor Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([[w:Society of Saint-Sulpice|S.S.]]), a nineteenth century historian, observed that [[w:Chronology of the late tenth century Bible|Biblical Chronologies]] are uncertain due to discrepancies in the figures in [[Genesis]] and other methodological factors, accounting for hundreds of different chronologies being assigned by historians. In the ''Byzantine Creation Era'' (dating case of September 1 5508 BC) had become the widely accepted calendar Fathers of choice for Chalcedonian Orthodoxythe [[Sixth Ecumenical Council]], who assigned 5509 B.C. The ''Alexandrian Era'' continued to be used from as the sixth century on by date of the [[w:Coptic calendarCreation according to Genesis|Copticcreation of man]] Church and , he writes that it was in response to the emperor's wishes to fix an era or convenient starting point for historical computation. Therefore it was a modified form by decision of mere historical convenience, not respecting either faith or morals, which are what is truly of intrinsic value in the Scriptures.<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([[w:Ethiopian calendarSociety of Saint-Sulpice|EthiopianS.S.]] Orthodox Church). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, forming their calendars up until 1886. p.21.</ref> Having made this disclaimer, he settles on the present dayBenedictine Chronology of 4963 BC for the purposes of his history.
===Roman Martyrology===Some [[w:Traditionalist Catholic|Traditionalist Catholics]] use * Regarding the so-called ''Era of the Creation of the year 5199 BCWorld'', which is taken from [[w:Roman Martyrology|Catholic martyrologies]], and referred to as the true date 9th edition of Creation the ''Encyclopedia Brittanica'' cites the author Des Vignoles, who had asserted in the "preface to his ''Chronologie de l’Histoire Sainte''('Mystical City 'Chronology of GodSacred History''," a 17thBerlin 1738), that he collected upwards of two-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning hundred different calculations, the shortest of which reckons only 3483 years between the creation of the world and the life commencement of the Virgin Maryvulgar era and the longest 6984. This year was also used earlier by Concluding that the so-called era of the church historian [[Eusebius creation of the world is a purely conventional and arbitrary epoch, for which the very nature of Caesarea]] in 324the case discussion is hopeless labour.<ref>V. GrumelThomas Spencer Baynes. ''La Chronologie''“[http://books. 1958google. pp.24-25.<ca/ref>books?id=HKgMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=Anglican and Protestant===In gbs_navlinks_s Chronology: Era of the English-speaking world, one Creation of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [[wWorld.]”'' '''The Encyclopaedia Britannica:James Ussher|James Ussher]] (1581–1656), who proposed a date dictionary of Sundayarts, [[October 23]]sciences, 4004 BCand general literature'''. 9th Ed., in the Julian calendarVol. 5. A. & C. He placed the beginning of this first day of creationBlack, and hence the exact time of creation, at the previous nightfall1833. p. 713. (See the [[w:Ussher chronology|Ussher chronology]]).</ref>
==Criticism==* According to Fr. Stanley Harakas, It may also be noted historically that while Byzantine officials and chroniclers were disconcerted by the ambiguities among the Bible's description of creation is not a "scientific account". It is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth different dating and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of recording systems in the origins of mankindearlier centuries, though important, is really quite secondary in significance these mattered little to most people who marked time by the Church's message. The central image orderly progression of [[Adam agricultual seasons and Eve|Adam]] as [[God|God's]] image church festivals, and likenessby the regularity of holidays, who also represents fallen and sinful humanityweather cycles, and years that revealed the new Adam, [[Jesus Christw:Will of God|Divine order]], who is the "beginning", the first-born of the dead (Colossians 1:18''Taxis'') and underlying the "first-fruits" of those who were dead, and are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), is what is really importantworld.<ref>FrProf. Stanley SDr. Harakas. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref> * Professor [http://wwwaha.buzzlemissouri.comedu/authorspeople/rautman.asp?author=973 Drhtml Marcus Louis Rautman]. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis] claims that the various new dating systems introduced throughout the Christian Roman Empire involved different eras (dates), causing great difficulty in homogenizing Christianity that was progressively torn up by conflicting theoretical systems, until one of them, the ''Creation Era of Constantinople"Time."'', prevailed through the use of the military machine of the empire, and applied unprecedented terror against the rest, which were characterized as heretical.<ref>Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. In [http://wwwbooks.buzzlegoogle.comca/articles/guezebooks?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-ethiopianflower+-the-counterfeit-millennium.html witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: Daily Life in the Counterfeit MillenniumByzantine Empire'']. SeptGreenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp. 8, 2007.</ref>
Even the most mystical Fathers such as [[Isaac of Syria|St. Isaac the Syrian]] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC''. As Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]] points out::"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology Greek and Roman methods of the [[Old Testament]], from [[Adam computing time were connected with certain pagan rites and Eve|Adam]] onwardsobservances, is Christians began at an early period to be accepted "literally." They did not have adopt the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even Hebrew practice of reckoning their years from the most mystical Fathers ([[Isaac supposed period of Syria|St. Isaac the Syrian]], [[Gregory Palamasw:Creation according to Genesis|St. Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and of the [[Incarnation|Birth of Christworld]]."<ref>FrClassic Encyclopedia. [[Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MANhttp: The Orthodox Christian Vision''//www. St1911encyclopedia. Herman org/Chronology#Era_of_the_Creation_of_the_World Chronology - Era of the Creation of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540the World].</ref>
It is interesting to note Currently the two dominant dates for creation that exist using the traditional Jewish understanding Biblical model, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of the creation "days" Bible, with most of Genesis is also that they are literal, as virtually all the Rabbis had understood difference arising from Talmudic, Midrashic and Rabbinic sources.<ref>Paul James-Griffithstwo versions of [[Genesis]]. The older dates of the [[Church Fathers]] in the ''Byzantine Era''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]in its precursor, the ''Alexandrian Era'', are based on the Greek [[Septuagint]]. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004The later dates of Archbishop [[w:James Ussher|James Ussher]] and the Hebrew Calendar are based on the Hebrew Masoretic text.</ref>
Currently The Fathers were well aware of the two dominant dates for creation that exist using discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Biblical modelGreek and Hebrew [[Old Testament]] chronology, are about 5500 BC and about 4000 BC<ref group="note">Note that according to Dr. These are calculated from the genealogies in two versions of Wacholder, [[Josephus|Josephus']] chronology for the Bible, antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with most of the difference arising from two versions of [[GenesisSeptuagint|LXX]], but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. The older dates He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems. (Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.''Byzantine Creation EraIn '' are based on 'The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968)).</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the Greek standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [[SeptuagintSeraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The later dates Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Archbishop [[w:James Ussher|James Ussher]] are based on the Hebrew Masoretic textAlaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603. </ref>
The Fathers were well aware of the discrepancy of some hundreds of years between the Greek and Hebrew Old Testament chronology,<ref>Note that according to Dr. Wacholder, JOSEPHUS' chronology for the antediluvian period (pre-flood) conforms with the [[Septuagint|LXX]], but for the Noachites (post-flood) he used the Hebrew text. He chose this method to resolve the problem of the two chronological systems.</ref> and it did not bother them; they did not quibble over years or worry that the standard calendar was precise "to the very year"; it is sufficient that what is involved is beyond any doubt a matter of some few thousands of years, involving the lifetimes of specific men, and it can in no way be interpreted as millions of years or whole ages and races of men.<ref>Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.602-603.</ref> To this day, traditional Orthodox Christians will use the Byzantine calculation of the [[w:Etos Kosmou|Etos Kosmou]] ''World Era'' in conjunction with the [[w:Anno Domini|Anno Domini]] (AD) year. Both dates appear on Orthodox cornerstones, ecclesiastical calendars and formal documents. The ecclesiastical new year is still observed on [[September 1]] (or on the Gregorian Calendar's [[September 14]] for those churches which follow the [[Julian Calendar]]). September 2010 marked the beginning of the year 7519 of this era.
==References==<div class="small"><references/></div> ==Sources==* [[w:Byzantine Calendar|Byzantine Calendar]] at Wikipedia.* [[w:Dating Creation|Dating Creation]] at Wikipedia.* [[w:Doukas|Doukas]] (ca.1460). ''Decline '19th Century and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman TurksEarlier'''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. (ISBN 9780814315408)* DrJohn McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://wwwbooks.hucgoogle.educa/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholderbooks?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, NoV.3 (Jul2.Harper, 1968), pp.451-4811887.* Elias JProf. BickermanFr. ''Chronology Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([[w:Society of the Ancient World''Saint-Sulpice|S. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980. * FrS. [[Seraphim Rose]]). ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN[http: The Orthodox Christian Vision''//books. Stgoogle. Herman ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000the Western Empire in A.* FrD. Stanley S. Harakas476]. ''The Orthodox ChurchBaltimore: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, MinneapolisFoley, 19881886.* George Ogg[[w:Samuel Abraham Poznański|Samuel Poznański]]. ''Hippolytus Ben Meir and the Introduction Origin of the Christian EraJewish Calendar.'' in '''Vigiliae ChristianaeThe Jewish Quarterly Review''', Vol.1610, No.1 (MarOct., 19621897), pp.2152-18161.* Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.* Paul James-GriffithsSir [[w:Thomas Browne|Thomas Browne]]. ''[http://wwwpenelope.answersingenesisuchicago.orgedu/creationpseudodoxia/v26/i2/traditionpseudo61.html Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch.asp Creation days 1 - Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Orthodox Jewish TraditionHistorical]''. AnswersinGenesis1646; 6th ed.org, 1672. March 2004pp. 321-330.* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://wwwbooks.litencycgoogle.comca/php/stopics.phpbooks?recid=TqcrAAAAYAAJ&printsec=truetitlepage&UIDsource=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy].''(Vol. The Literary Encyclopedia3, Part 1). 25 SeptemberGlasgow: Blackie and Son, 20081841.* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin MegalommatisThomas Spencer Baynes. ''“[http://wwwbooks.buzzlegoogle.comca/articles/gueze-ethiopian-books?id=HKgMAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_navlinks_s Chronology: Era of the Creation of the-counterfeit-millenniumWorld.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium”]. Sept. 8, 2007.* ''The Rudder (Pedalion)'''The Encyclopaedia Britannica: Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, a dictionary of the holy Councilsarts, ecumenical as well as regionalsciences, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. Compgeneral literature'''. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk9th Ed. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; ReprVol., New York, N5.YA.: Luna Printing Co& C.Black, 1983)1833.* Paul Stephensonpp. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700709-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006754.
+ link
[[Image:Monreale creation Adam.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Byzantine mosaic of the Creation of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] ([[w:Monreale|Monreale]] Cathedral, Sicily, XII c.)]][[Image:God the Geometer.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Creation of the world. ([[w:Bible moralisée|Bible moralisée]], medieval manuscript, XIII c.)]]The '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or, also ''' ''"Imperial Creation Era of Constantinople,"'' ''' or ''' ''"Era of the World"'' ''' (Greek: ''' ''Έτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατά 'Ρωμαίους'' '''<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''How Old is The World? The Byzantine Era and its Rivals''. Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=YWec0i621ekC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21-26 August, 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications].''' Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23-24.</ref> also ''' ''Έτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου'' ''' or ''' ''Έτος Κόσμου'' ''') was the Calendar officially used by the Eastern [[Orthodox Church]] from ca. AD 691 to 1728 in the [[Church of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarchate]], by the [[Byzantine Empire]]<refgroup="note">i.e. '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. The term Byzantine was invented by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf in 1557 but was popularized by French scholars during the 18th century to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire. The citizens of the empire considered themselves ''Romaioi'' ("Romans"), their emperor was the "Roman Emperor", and their empire the ''Basileia ton Romaion'' ("Empire of the Romans"). The Latin West designated the empire as "Romania", and the Muslims as "Rum[[Rüm]]".</ref> from AD 988 to 1453, and the Eastern Orthodox in [[Churchof Russia|Russia]] from ca. AD 988 to 1700.
Derived from the [[Septuagint]]version of the Bible, it placed the date of creation at 5,508 509 years before the [[Incarnation]], and was characterized by a certain tendency which had already been a tradition amongst Hebrews and Jews to number the years ''' ''from the beginning foundation of the world'' (Latin: ''' - '''‘[[w:Etos KosmouAnno Mundi|Etos Kosmou / Apo Kataboles KosmouAnnus Mundi]]’/ Ab Origine Mundi'' ''' (Greek: ''Έτος Κόσμου'AM''')).<ref group="note">Significantly, or this same phrase - ''"from the foundation of the world"'' (Greek: ''Apo Kataboles Kosmou''‘) - occurs repeatedly in the [[w:Anno Mundi|Annus Mundi / Ab Origine MundiNew Testament]]’, in '''Matthew 25:34''', '''Luke 11:50' '', 'AM''Hebrews 4:3''' (Latin). This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the seventh century A.D. (ca.692), although its precursors were developed circa AD 400 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Christian_Era|''Alexandrian Christian Era'9:26''', and '']]). By the late tenth century<ref>i.e. From the reign of Emperor Basil II (Βασίλειος Β' ο Βουλγαροκτόνο)Revelation 13:8, who ruled from 976-102517:8''', a period that saw the highest point of perhaps reflecting on the Byzantine Empire desire in nearly five centuries. It was during this time (ca. 988) that case to fix such an era or convenient starting point for historical computation in a calendar based on the [[w:Coptic calendarHoly Scripture|''Alexandrian System''Scriptures]] was no longer referred to in Byzantium.</ref> a unified system Its year one, the supposed date of creation, was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world[[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.
==History==it is not known who invented this era and when, however it appears for the first time in the treatise of a certain “[[monk]] and [[Presbyter|priest]]”, Georgios (AD 638-39), who mentions all the main variants of the ''"World Era"'' (''Ére Mondiale'') in his work.<ref>Fr. Diekamp, ''“Der Mönch und Presbyter Georgios, ein unbekannter Schriftsteller des 7. Jahrhunderts,”'' BZ 9 (1900) 14–51.</ref><ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.3.</ref>. Georgios makes it clear that the main advantage of the Byzantine era is the common starting point of the astronomical [[w:Metonic cycle|lunar]] and [[w:Solar cycle (calendar)|solar]] cycles, and of the cycle of [[Indiction|indictions]], the usual dating system in Byzantium since the sixth century. He also already regards it as the most convenient for the [[Pascha|Easter]] [[w:Computus|computus]]. Complex calculations of the 19-year lunar and 28-year solar cycles within this world era allowed scholars to discover the cosmic significance of certain historical dates, such as the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]] or the [[Crucifixion]].<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Daily+Life+in+the+Byzantine+Empire ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.7</ref> This date underwent minor revisions before being finalized in the mid-7th century A.D., although its precursors were developed circa AD 412 (see [[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|''Alexandrian Era'']]). By the second half of the 7th century the ''Creation Era'' was known in the far West of Europe, in Britain.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4. (PL XC, 598, 877 (Pseudo‐Beda)).</ref> By the late 10th century around AD 988, when the era appears in use on offical government records, a unified system was widely recognized across the Eastern Roman world. The era was ultimately calculated as starting on [[September 1|September 1st]], and [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]] was thought to have been born in the year 5509 ''Annus Mundi'' (AM) - the year since the creation of the world.<refname=Stephenson>Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.</ref>. Thus historical time was calculated from the creation, and not from Christ's birth, as in the west. The Eastern Church avoided the use of the ''[[w:Anno Domini|Christian EraAnno Domini]] '' system of Dionysius Exiguus since the date of Christ's birth was debated in Constantinople as late as the fourteenth 14th century. Otherwise the ''Creation Era'' was identical to the [[Julian Calendar]] except that:
:*the names of the months were transcribed from Latin into Greek,
:*the first day of the year was [[September 1]],<refgroup="note">About the year 462 the Byzantine [[Indiction]] was moved from [[September 23]] to [[September 1]], where it remained throughout the rest of the Byzantine Empire, representing the present day beginning of the Church year. In 537 Justinian decreed that all dates must include the [[indiction]], so it was officially adopted as one way to identify a Byzantine year, becoming compulsory. Although the successive 15-year indiction cycles are themselves never numbered, each year within the cycle is, and the indiction had become the usual way for the Byzantines to distinguish recent and forthcoming years.</ref> so that both the Ecclesiatical and Civil calendar years ran from 1 September to [[August 31|31 August]], (see [[Indiction]]), which to the present day is the [[Church Calendar|Church year]], and,:*the date of creation, its year one, was [[September 1]], 5509 BC to [[August 31]], 5508 BC.
Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder points out that the writings of the [[Church Fathers]] on this subject are of vital significance (''even though he disagrees with their chronological system based on the authenticity of the [[Septuagint]], as compared to that of the [[w:Masoretic Text|Hebrew text]]''), in that through the Christian chronographers a window to the earlier Hellenistic biblical chronographers<ref group="note">[[w:Eratosthenes|Eratosthenes of Cyrene]] (275-194 B.C.) represented contemporary Alexandrian scholarship; [[w:Eupolemus|Eupolemus]], a Palestinian Jew and a friend of [[w:Judas Maccabeus|Judah Maccabee]], writing in 158 B.C., is said to have been the first historian who synchronized Greek history in accordance with the theory of the Mosaic origin of culture. By the time of the first century B.C., a world chronicle had synchronized Jewish and Greek history and had gained international circulation: [[w:Alexander Polyhistor|Alexander Polyhistor]] (flourishing in 85-35 B.C.); [[w:Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] (116-27 B.C.); Ptolemy priest of Mendes (50 B.C.), who is cited by [[w:Tatian|Tatian]] (''Oratio ad Graecos'', 38); [[w:Apion|Apion]] (first century A.D.); [[w:Thrasyllus of Mendes|Thrasyllus]] (before A.D. 36); and [[w:Thallus (historian)|Thallus]] (first century A.D.) - all cited chronicles which had incorporated the dates of the Noachite flood and the exodus. (Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-452.)</ref> is preserved:
The Alexandrine monk [[w:An immense intellectual effort Panodorus of Alexandria|Panodoros]] reckoned 5904 years from [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] to the year AD 412. His years began with [[August 29]], corresponding to the [[w:Thout|First of Thoth]], or the [[w:Egyptian calendar|Egyptian]] new year.<ref>Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[[w:Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge|Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].</ref> Bishop [[w:Annianus of Alexandria|Annianos of Alexandria]] however, preferred the Annunciation style as New Year's Day, the 25th of March, and shifted the Panodoros era by about six months, to begin on 25 March. This created the ''Alexandrian Era'', whose first day was expended during the Hellenistic period first day of the proleptic<ref group="note">A calendar obtained by both Jews extension earlier in time than its invention or implementation is called the "proleptic" version of the calendar</ref> Alexandrian civil year in progress, 29 August, 5493 BC, with the ecclesiatical year beginning on 25 March, 5493 BC. :This system presents in a masterly sort of way the mystical coincidence of the three main dates of the world's history: the beginning of Creation, the [[Incarnation]], and pagans the [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]. All these events happened, according to date creationthe Alexandrian chronology, on the flood25th of March; furthermore, exodusthe first two events were separated by the period of exactly 5500 years; the first and the third one occurred on Sunday — the sacred day of the beginning of the Creation and its renovation through Christ.<ref name=KUZENKOV1>Pavel Kuzenkov. ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. '''21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, building ''' London 2006. p.2.</ref> [[Dionysius of Alexandria]] had earlier emphatically quoted mystical justifications for the choice of March 25th as the start of the Templeyear::[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itself.It was the first day of the year in the medieval [[Julian calendar]] and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed).Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned March 25 into the Feast of the [[Annunciation]] which had to be followed, nine months later, by the celebration of the [[Nativity|birth of Christ]], Christmas, on [[December 25]]. In The ''Alexandrian Era'' of [[March 25]] 5493 BC was adopted by church fathers such as [[Maximus the Confessor]] and [[Theophanes the course of their studiesConfessor]], men as well as chroniclers such as [[w:TatianGeorge Syncellus|Tatian George Syncellus]]. Its striking mysticism made it popular in Byzantium especially in monastic circles. However this masterpiece of Christian symbolism had two serious weak points: historical inaccuracy surrounding the date of Antioch[[Resurrection]] as determined by its [[Pascha|Easter]] [[w:Computus|computus]] (flourished in 180), <ref group="note">In the commonly used 19‐year [[Clement of AlexandriaPascha|Easter]] moon cycle, there was no year when the Passover (died before 215the first spring full moon, Nisan 14)would coincide with Friday and the traditional date of the Passion, March 25; according to Alexandrian system the date would have to have been Anno Mundi 5533 = 42(!)AD.</ref> and its contradiction to the chronology of the [[w:Hippolytus Gospel]] of Rome[[Apostle John|Hippolytus St John]] regarding the date of Romethe [[Crucifixion]] (died on Friday after the Passover.<ref name=KUZENKOV1/>===Chronicon Paschale===A new variant of the ''World Era'' was suggested in 235), the ''[[w:Sextus Julius AfricanusChronicon Paschale|Chronicon Paschale]]'', a valuable Byzantine universal chronicle of the world, composed about the year 630 AD by some representative of the Antiochian scholarly tradition.<ref name=KUZENKOV1/> It had for its basis a chronological list of events extending from the creation of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] to the year A.D. 627. The chronology of the writer is based on the figures of the Bible and begins with [[March 21|Julius Africanus21 March]] , 5507. For its influence on Greek Christian chronology, and also because of Jerusalem (died after 240)its wide scope, the ''"Chronicon Paschale"'' takes its place beside [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] in Palestine (260-340), and Pseudo-Justin frequently quoted their predecessors, the Graeco-Jewish biblical chronographers chronicle of the monk [[w:George Syncellus|Georgius Syncellus]]<ref>[[w:George Syncellus|George Synkellos]]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Hellenistic periodCreation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, thereby allowing discernment 2002.</ref> which was so important in the Middle Ages; but in respect of more distant scholarshipform it is inferior to these works.<ref>Dr. Ben Zion WacholderVan der Essen, L. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]'' in . In '''The Harvard Theological ReviewCatholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, Vol1908.61</ref> By the late 10th century the ''Byzantine Era'', No.3 having become fixed at [[September 1]] 5509 BC since the mid-7th century (Jul.differing by 16 years from the Alexandrian date, 1968and 2 years from the ''Chronicon Paschale''), pp.451-452.</ref>had become the widely accepted calendar of choice ''par excellence'' for Chalcedonian Orthodoxy.
==Accounts in Church Fathers==
'''St. Augustine'''
[[Augustine of Hippo|Blessed Augustine]] writes in the ''[[w:City of God(book)|City of God]]'' (written AD 413-426):: "Let us omit the conjectures of men who know not what they say, when they speak of the nature and origin of the human race...They are deceived by those highly mendacious documents which profess to give the history of many thousands of years, though reckoning by the sacred writings we find that not 6,000 years have passed. (''[[w:City of God(book)|City of God]]'' 12:10)<ref>Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.236.</ref>.Augustine goes on to say that the ancient Greek chronology "does not exceed the true account of the duration of the world as it is given in our documents [(i.e. the [[Holy Scripture|Scriptures]]), which are truly sacred."
'''St. Hippolytus'''
St. [[w:Hippolytus of Rome|St. Hippolytus of Rome]] (ca.170-235) maintained on Scriptural grounds that the Lord's birth took place in 5500 AM, and held that the birth of Christ took place on a passover day, deducing that its month-date was [[March 25|25 March]]<refname="OGG">George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), ppp.4-6.</ref> (see ''[[Byzantine_Creation_Era#Alexandrian_Era|Alexandrian Era]]'' below). He gave the following intervals:
:"...from Adam to the flood 2242 years, thence to Abraham 1141 years, thence to the Exodus 430 years, thence to the passover of [[Joshua ]] 41 years, thence to the passover of Hezekiah 864 years, thence to the passover of Josiah 114 years, thence to the passover of Ezra 107 years, and thence to the birth of Christ 563 years."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.5.<name="OGG"/ref>.
In his ''Commentary on Daniel'', one of his earlier writings, he proceeds to set out additional reasons for accepting the date of 5500 AM:
:"First he quotes Exod. xxv. 10f. and pointing out that the length, breadth and height of the [[w:Ark of the Covenant|ark of the covenant]] amount in all to 5 1/2 cubits, says that these symbolize the 5,500 years from Adam at the end of which the Saviour was born. He then quotes from Jn. xix. 14 ' ''it was about the sixth hour'' ' and, understanding by that 5 1/2 hours, takes each hour to correspond to a thousand years of the world's life..."<ref>George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), p.4.<name="OGG"/ref>
Around AD 202 Hippolytus held that the Lord was born in the 42nd year of the reign of Augustus<refgroup="note">It is likely that his reckoning is from B.C. 43, the year in which Octavian was declared consul by senate and people and recognized as the adopted son and heir of Caesar. Epiphanius, (''Haeres'') also puts the Lord's birth in the 42nd year of Augustus when Octavius Augustus xiii and SIlanus Silanus were consuls; and they were consuls in 2 B.C. (George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era''. in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962)).</ref> and that he was born in 5500AM. In his ''Commentary on Daniel'' he did not need to establish the precise year of the Lord's birth; he is not concerned about the day of the week, the month-date, or even the year; it was sufficient for his purpose to show that Christ was born in the days of Augustus in 5500 AM. '''Quinisext Council''' It is referred to indirectly in Canon III of the [[Quinisext Council]], which the Orthodox Churches consider as ecumenical, its canons being added to the decrees of the [[Fifth Ecumenical Council|Fifth]] and [[Sixth Ecumenical Council|Sixth]] Councils, as follows::"... as of the fifteenth day of the month of January last past, ''in the last fourth [[Indiction]]'', '''in the year six thousand one hundred and ninety [6190]''', ..."<ref>''[[The Rudder]] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to the less educated. :Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).</ref>
==Accounts in Byzantine Authors==
From Justinian's decree in AD 537 onwardsthat all dates must include the [[Indiction]], the unification of the theological date of creation (as yet unfinalized) with the administrative system of [[Indiction]] cycles is seen, and was became commonly referred to commonly amongst [[w:Category:Byzantine historians|Byzantine authors]], to whom the [[indiction]] was the standard measurement of time . '''In Official Documents''' As mentioned above, in the year AD 691 we find the ''Creation Era'' in the Acts of the [[Quinisext Council|Trullanum Council]] (so‐called Synodos Quinisexta). We find the era also in the dating of the so called ''Letter of three Patriarchs'' to the emperor Theophilos (April, indiction 14, 6344 = 836 AD). By the tenth century the ''Byzantine Era''see reference #is found in the ''Novellas'' of A.D. 947, 962, 964, and most surely of the year A.D. 988, all dated in this way, as well as the Act of Patriarch [[Nicholas II of Constantinople|Nicholaos II Chrysobergos]] in A.D. 987.<ref>Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006. p.4 below.</ref> '''John Skylitzes''' [[w:John Skylitzes|John Skylitzes']] (ca.1081-1118)major work is the ''Synopsis of Histories'', which covers the reigns of the Byzantine emperors from the death of Nicephorus I in 811 to the deposition of Michael IV in 1057; it continues the chronicle of [[Theophanes the Confessor]]. Quoting from him as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that: :"In the '''year 6508''' [1000], '''in the thirteenth [[indiction]]''', the emperor sent a great force against the Bulgarian fortified positions (kastra) on the far side of the Balkan (Haimos) mountains,..."<ref name=Stephenson/> '''Niketas Choniates''' [[w:Niketas Choniates|Niketas Choniates]] (ca. 1155–1215), sometimes called Acominatus, was a Byzantine Greek historian. His chief work is his ''History'', in twenty-one books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. Again, an example of the dating method can be seen as he refers to the fall of Constantinople to the fourth crusade as follows: :"The queen of cities fell to the Latins on the twelfth day of the month of April of the '''seventh [[indiction]] in the year 6712''' [1204]."<ref>Niketas Choniates. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984. p.338</ref>
'''Doukas'''
The historian [[w:Doukas|Doukas]], writing circa AD 1460, makes a detailed account for the year 5508 BC as the date of creation''Creation Era''. Although unrefined in style, the history of [[w:Doukas|Doukas]] is both judicious and trustworthy, and it is the most valuable source for the closing years of the Byzantine empire.
:"From [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], the first man created by [[God]], to [[Noah]], at whose time the flood took place, there were ten generations. The first, which was from God, was that of Adam. The second, after 230 years, was that of Seth begotten of Adam. The third, 205 years after Seth, was that of Enos begotten of Seth. The fourth, 190 years after Enos, was that of Kainan begotten of Enos. The fifth, 170 years after Kainan, was that of Mahaleel begotten of Kainan. The sixth, 165 years after Mahaleel, was that of Jared begotten of Mahaleel. The seventh, 162 years after Jared, was that of [[Enoch]] begotten of Jared. The eighth, 165 years after Enoch, was that of Methuselah begotten of Enoch. The ninth, 167 years after Methuselah, was that of Lamech begotten of Methuselah. The tenth, 188 years after Lamech, was that of Noah. Noah was 600 years old when the flood of water came upon the earth. Thus 2242 years may be counted from Adam to the flood.
:By the sequence of Numbers we calculate the number of 5,500 years from the time of the first Adam to Christ."<ref>Doukas (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. pp.57-58.</ref>.
==The Byzantine Mindset=====Literal Creation Days===Even the most mystical Fathers such as [[Isaac of Syria|St. Isaac the Syrian]] accepted without question the common understanding of the Church that ''the world was created "more or less" in 5,500 BC'John Skylitzes'. As Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]] points out::"The Holy Fathers (probably unanimously) certainly have no doubt that the chronology of the [[Old Testament]], '''from [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] onwards''', is to be accepted "literally." They did not have the fundamentalist's over-concern for chronological ''precision'', but even the most mystical Fathers ([[Isaac of Syria|St. Isaac the Syrian]], [[Gregory Palamas|St. Gregory Palamas]], etc.) were quite certain that Adam lived literally some 900 years, that there were some 5,500 years ("more or less") between the creation and the [[Incarnation|Birth of Christ]]."<ref>Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. pp.539-540.</ref> The [[Church Fathers]] also consistently affirm that each species of the animate creation came into existence instantaneously, at the command of God, with its seed within itself.<ref name=OSB>''The [[Orthodox Study Bible]]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.2.</ref> [[Basil the Great]] for example takes this literal view in the ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron],'' a work consisitng of nine homilies delivered by St. Basil on the cosmogony of the opening chapters of Genesis, providing one of the most detailed expositions of the six days of creation to come down to us from the early church. Basil writes in Homily I that::"Thus then, if it is said, “''In the beginning God created,''” it is to teach us that at the will of God the world arose in less than an instant,..."<ref>St. [[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.viii.ii.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819-1893): '''VOLUME VIII - BASIL: LETTERS AND SELECT WORKS'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.</ref>
Typical of the Christian conviction on this point, St. [[Hilary of Poitiers]] also affirms that the [[w:Creation according to Genesis|Creation]] was performed [[w:John SkylitzesEx nihilo|John Skylitzes'ex nihilo]]: :"For all things, as the Prophet says, were made out of nothing; it was no transformation of existing things, but the creation of the non-being into a perfect form".<ref>St. [[Hilary of Poitiers]] (ca.1081-1118) major work is the ''Synopsis of HistoriesOn the Trinity''. Book IV, which covers 16.</ref>The prophet cited by St. Hilary was the reigns [[w:Woman with seven sons|mother of the Byzantine emperors from the death Maccabean martyrs]], who said to one of Nicephorus her tortured sons, ''"I beseech you, my child, to look at heaven and earth and see everything in 811 to them, and know that God made them out of nothing; so also He made the deposition race of Michael IV man in 1057; it continues this way"''<ref>''The [[Orthodox Study Bible]]'' ([[Septuagint]]). St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. (2 Maccabees 7:28), p.653.</ref> (2 Maccabees 7:28).<ref name="REARDON">Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the chronicle Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. pp.34-35.</ref> This text from [[Theophanes II Maccabees]] was the Confessorstandard biblical proof text for the Christian Church in respect to [[w:Ex nihilo|creation from nothingness]]. Quoting We find the thesis in late Judaism, from him which it passed into the Christian faith as an example of the common Byzantine dating method, he refers to emperor Basil, writing that:essential teaching.<ref name="REARDON"/>
===[[Hours]] of the Liturgical Day===In the Byzantine period the day was divided into two 12-hour cycles fixed by the rising and setting of the sun.:"Following Roman custom, the Byzantines began their calendrical day (''nychthemeron'Niketas Choniates') at midnight with the first hour of day (''hemera'') coming at dawn. The third hour marked midmorning, the sixth hour noon, and the ninth hour midafternoon. Evening (''[[Vespers|hespera]]'') began at the 11th hour, and with sunset came the first hour of night (''[[Compline|apodeipnon]]''). The interval between sunset and sunrise (''nyx'') was similarly divided into 12 hours as well as the traditional "watches" (''vigiliae'') of Roman times."<ref>Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In [http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3</ref>
===Days of the Liturgical Week===Dr. Marcus Rautman points out that the seven-day week was known throughout the ancient world. The Roman Calendar had assigned one of the planetary deities to each day of the week. The Byzantines naturally avoided using these Latin names with their pagan echoes. They began their week with the "[[w:Niketas Choniates|Niketas ChoniatesLord's Day]] " (ca. 1155–1215Kyriake), followed by an orderly succession of numbered days (Deutera, Trite, Tetarte, and Pempte), sometimes called Acominatusa day of "preparation" (Paraskeve), and finally Sabatton.:"Each day was a Byzantine Greek historiandevoted to remembering one or more martyrs or saints, whose observed feast days gradually eclipsed traditional festivals. His chief work is his ''History''Kyriake was seen as both the first and eighth day of the week, in twenty-one booksthe same way that [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] was the [[w:Alpha and Omega|alpha and omega]] of the cosmos, existing both before and after time. The second day of the period from 1118 to 1207. Againweek recognized [[angels]], an example "the secondary luminaries as the first reflections of the dating method can be seen primal outpouring of light," just as he refers to the fall sun and the moon had been observed during the Roman week. [[John the Forerunner|John the Baptist]], the forerunner (Prodromos) of Constantinople to Christ, was honored on the third day. Both the fourth crusade second and third days were viewed as follows: :"occasions for penitence. The queen fourth and sixth days were dedicated to the [[Cross]] with holy songs sung in remembrance of cities fell to the Latins Crucifixion. The [[Theotokos|Virgin Mary]] was honored on the twelfth fifth day of the month of April of week, while the '''seventh day was set aside for the [[indictionMartyr|martyrs]] in of the year 6712''' [1204]church."<ref>Niketas ChoniatesProf. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates"Time."'' TranslIn [http://books. by Harry Jgoogle. Magouliasca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']. Wayne State University Press, DetroitGreenwood Publishing Group, 19842006. ppp.3385</ref>
==Comparative List of Dates of Creation==
===Early Church Writers===
* 5537 BC <ref name=ROSE-GENESIS/><ref name=Setterfield>Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.</ref> - [[w:Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]] (AD 200-245), Church historian.* 5529 BC <ref name=ROSE-GENESIS/><ref name=Setterfield/> - [[w:Theophilus of Antioch|Theophilus]] (AD 115-181), Bishop of Antioch.* '''5508 5509 BC''' - '''Byzantine Creation Era''' or''' ''"Creation Era of Constantinople."'' ''' (finalized in mid-7th c.AD).* 5507 BC - ''[[w:Chronicon Paschale|Chronicon Paschale]]'' (ca. AD 630), Byzantine universal chronicle of the world.
* 5500 BC - [[w:Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus of Rome]]. (ca. AD 234), Presbyter, writer, martyr.
* '''5493 BC - Alexandrian Christian Era''' (AD 412).
* 5199 BC - [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], Bishop of Caesarea and Church historian (AD 324).
===Other Later Estimates===* 5199 BC - Mentioned in the ''[[w:Roman Martyrology|Roman Martyrology]]''<ref group="note">Roman Martyrology: Some [[w:Traditionalist Catholic|Traditionalist Catholics]] use the year 5199 BC, which is taken from [[w:Roman Martyrology|Catholic martyrologies]], and referred to as the true date of Creation in the "''Mystical City of God''," a 17th-century mystical work written by Maria de Agreda concerning creation and the life of the Virgin Mary. This year was also used earlier by the church historian [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] in 324. (V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. 1958. pp.24-25).</ref>, published by the authority of Pope Gregory XIII in 1584, later confirmed in 1630 under Pope Urban VIII.* 4963 BC - According to the Benedictine Chronology<ref group="note">Don [[w:Maurus Dantine|Maur François d'Antine]]. ''Art of Verifying Dates''. 4to, 1750. Printed again in folio in 1770.:In France the Benedictine Maurist Order presided over the publication of a remarkable series of source collections for both ecclesiastical and secular history, and sponsored the major studies of documentation and chronology of the period. (John McClintock, James Strong. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PsosAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement]''. V.2. Harper, 1887. p.235.)<br>:Chronology was made a new science by this order of scholars. The ''"[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Art_de_v%C3%A9rifier_les_dates Art de vérifer les dates]"'', by [[w:Maurus Dantine|Dantine]] and [[w:Charles Clémencet|Clémencet]], is regarded as the chief monument of French learning in the eighteenth century. (Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p.171.)</ref>, which is founded on the [[Septuagint|LXX]],<ref>Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert ([[w:Society of Saint-Sulpice|S.S.]]). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=OJQWAAAAYAAJ&printsec=toc&source=gbs_navlinks_s An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476].'' Baltimore: Foley, 1886. p.16.</ref> the Creation of Adam is given this date (AD 1750).* 4004 BC<ref group="note">Anglican and Protestant: In the English-speaking world, one of the most well known estimates in modern times is that of Archbishop [[w:James Ussher|James Ussher]] (1581–1656), who proposed a date of Sunday, [[October 23]], 4004 BC , in the Julian calendar. When Queen Victoria came to the English throne in AD 1837, 4004 B.C. was still accepted, in all sobriety, as the date of the creation of the world. (Classic Encyclopedia. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology]).</ref> - Anglican Archbishop [[w:James Ussher|James Ussher]] (AD 1650).
* 3952 BC - Venerable [[Bede]] (ca. AD 725), English Benedictine monk.
* 3761 BC<refgroup="note">In the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, the Jewish calendar was reformed. F. Rühl has shown that the adoption of this era must have taken place between the year 222, when Julius Africanus reports that the Jews still retained the eight-year lunar cycle(which is referred to in the pseudepigraphal ''[[Book of Enoch]]'' (74:13-16); see [[w:Enoch calendar|Enoch Calendar]]), and 276, when [[w:Anatolius of Laodicea|Anatolius ]] makes use of the nineteen year [[w:Metonic cycle|Metonic cycle]] to determine Easter after the manner of the Jews. It may be further conjectured that it was introduced about (''"[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation]."'' JewishEncyclopedia.com.)</ref><ref group="note">According to the year 240-241popular tradition, the first year of epoch that Hebrew calendar currently uses, the fifth thousand'''Hillel World Era''', beginning October 7, according to this calculation3761 BC, and that the tradition which associated its determination with is traditionally regarded as having been calculated by [[w:Samuel of NehardeaHillel II|Mar SamuelHillel II]] in the 4th century AD (dca. about 250358 AD) is justified, but did not become universal practice until the end of the Middle Ages. (F. RühlKarl Hagen. ''Der Ursprung der Jüdischen Weltära, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft"[http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar]".''Polysyllabic. 1898. pp. 185,202com.)</ref> - [[w:Hebrew calendar|Hebrew Calendar]] [Judaism] - (Judaismca. AD 222-276); or, (ca. AD 358 - ''[[w:Hillel II|Hillel]] World Era'').* 3760 BC<ref>Dr. Iaakov Karcz. ''"[http://www.earth-prints.org/bitstream/2122/794/1/32Karcz.pdf Implications of some early Jewish sources for estimates of earthquake hazard in the Holy Land]".'' '''Annals of Geophysics''', Vol. 47, N. 2/3, April/June 2004. p.765</ref><ref>Karl Hagen. ''"[http://www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar]".'' Polysyllabic.com.</ref> - Era of Adam, starts with creation of Adam. This era was used previously to the ''Hillel Era''.
==Other Dominant Church DatesCriticism=====Alexandrian Christian Era===* According to the [[Orthodox Study Bible]]: The '':Regarding questions about the scientific accuracy of the [[Genesis]] account of creation, and about various viewpoints concerning [[w:Coptic calendar|"Alexandrian Calendar"evolution]]'', or ''' the [[Orthodox Church]] has not dogmatized any particular view''Alexandrian Christian Era'. What is dogmatically proclaimed is that the One Triune [[God]] created everything that exists, and that man was created in a unique way and is alone made ' 'in the image and likeness of God'' was (Gn 1:26,27).<ref name=OSB/>:The opening words of the [[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed|Nicene Creed]], the central doctrinal statement of Christianity, affirms that the second dominant system present alongside One True God is the source of everything that exists, both physical and spiritual, both animate and inanimate: ''Byzantine Creation Era"We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of Heaven and Earth, and of all things visible and invisible."'' After the attempts by Hippolytus In addition, Clement of Alexandria our regeneration in Christ and others, the Alexandrian computation resurrection of the date of creation was worked out to be 25 March 5493 BCdead are both often called the '''"New Creation"''' (2 Cor 5:17; Rev 21:1).<ref>Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient WorldThe [[Orthodox Study Bible]]''. 2nd editionSt. Cornell University PressAthanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. 1980Elk Grove, California, 2008. p.731778.</ref>. It was adopted by church fathers such as [[Maximus the Confessor]] and [[Theophanes the Confessor]], as well as historians such as [[w:George Syncellus|George Syncellus]].
* According to Fr. [[w:Pope Dionysius of AlexandriaStanley S. Harakas|Dionysius of AlexandriaStanley Harakas]] emphatically quoted mystical justifications for , the choice Bible's description of March 25th::[[March 25]] was considered to be the anniversary of Creation itselfcreation is not a "scientific account". It was is not read for scientific knowledge but for spiritual truth and divine revelation. The physical-scientific side of the first day origins of the year mankind, though important, is really quite secondary in significance to the medieval Church's message. The central image of [[Julian calendarAdam and Eve|Adam]] as [[God|God's]] image and likeness, who also represents fallen and sinful humanity, and the nominal vernal equinox (it had been the actual equinox at the time when the Julian calendar was originally designed). Considering that Christ was conceived at that date turned March 25 into the Feast of the new Adam, [[AnnunciationJesus Christ]] which had to be followed, nine months laterwho is the "beginning", by the celebration first-born of the [[Nativity|birth dead (Colossians 1:18) and the "first-fruits" of Christ]]those who were dead, Christmasand are now alive (1 Corinthians 15:20-23), on is what is really important.<ref>Fr. [[December 25Stanley S. Harakas]].''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988. pp.88,91.</ref>
==Summary==
==See also==
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Gaussian Formulae]]
* [[Coptic Calendar]]
==Notes==
<references group="note" />
==References==
<div><references/></div>
==External Linkslinks=====Wikipedia===* [[w:Anno Mundi|Anno Mundi]].* [[w:Book of Genesis|Book of Genesis]].* [[w:Byzantine Calendarera|Byzantine Calendarera]].* [[w:Chronology of the Bible|Chronology of the Bible]].* [[w:Dating Creation|Dating Creation]] at Wikipedia.* [http[w:Ex nihilo|Ex nihilo]]* [[w:Hexameron|Hexameron]]* [[w://wwwLunisolar calendar|Lunisolar calendar]].1911encyclopedia* [[w:Septuagint|Septuagint]].org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople* [[w:Young Earth creationism|Young Earth creationism]] at Classic Encyclopedia ('''Based on Principal Considerations for the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911Byzantine Calendar'''* [[w:Creation according to Genesis|Creation according to Genesis]]* [[w:Solar cycle (calendar)|Solar cycle (calendar)]] (28-year solar cycle). * [[w:Metonic cycle|Metonic cycle]] (19 year lunar cycle).* [[w:Etos KosmouIndiction|Etos KosmouIndiction]] at Wikipedia(15 year indiction cycle).* [[w:Computus|Easter Computus]].'''Other Judeo-Christian Eras'''* [[w:Coptic calendar|Coptic Calendar]] at Wikipedia. (The Note: the '''"''Alexandrian Era''"''' (March 25, 5493 BC), is totally distinct from the Coptic "Alexandrian Calendar", based on which is derived from the ancient [[w:Egyptian calendar|Egyptian Calendar]], and based on the ''' ''Era of the Martyrs'' ''' ([[August 29]], 284)).* [[w:Enoch calendar|Enoch Calendar]].* [[w:Ethiopian calendar|Ethiopian Calendar]] at Wikipedia. (Based on Derived from the Coptic "AlexandrianCalendar", and based on the ''' ''Incarnation Era'' ''' (August 29, AD 8)).* [[w:Hebrew calendar|Hebrew calendar]].* [[w:Ussher chronology|Ussher chronology]]. ===Other===* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology Chronology] at Classic Encyclopedia (''Based on the 11th ed. of the Encyclopedia Britannica, pub.1911'').* [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Chronology#Era_of_Constantinople Era of Constantinople] at Classic Encyclopedia.
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]. Charles Ellis, University of Bristol. The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September, 2008.
* [http://www.smso.net/Calendar_era#Christian_era Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era] at SMSO Encyclopedia (''Saudi Medical Site Online'').
* Howlett, J. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03731a.htm Biblical Chronology]''. In, '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronology.html Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs].
* Dr. Stephen C. Meyers. [http://www.bibleandscience.com/archaeology/exodusdate.htm Biblical Archaeology: The Date of the Exodus According to Ancient Writers]. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies (IBSS). Updated April 30, 2008.
* [http://www.creationwiki.org/Young_earth_creationism Young earth creationism] at CreationWiki.
'''Hebrew Calendar'''
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=438&letter=E#1154 The Era of the Creation] at Jewish Encyclopedia.
* [http://www.smsofact-archive.netcom/Calendar_era#Christian_era encyclopedia/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar Era] at Fact-Archive.com* [http: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages//www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hebrew_calendar Hebrew Calendar] at Absolute Astronomy.* [http: Christian era//www.polysyllabic.com/calhistory/earlier/jewish The Jewish Calendar] at SMSO Encyclopedia by Karl Hagen (''Saudi Medical Site Online''medievalist).
==Bibliography and Further Reading=====Primary Sources===* [[w:Dating Doukas|Doukas]] (ca.1460). ''Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks''. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975. (ISBN 9780814315408)* [[w:George Syncellus|George Synkellos]]. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.* [[w:Abraham ibn Ezra|Dating CreationIbn Ezra]], Abraham ben Meïr, (1092-1167). ''Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit)''. (Vol.1 - Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.* [[w:Sextus Julius Africanus|Julius Africanus]] at Wikipedia.''Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.''* [[w:IndictionNiketas Choniates|IndictionNiketas Choniates]] at Wikipedia. ''O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates.'' Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.* Dr[[w:Pliny the Elder|Pliny the Elder]]. ''[[w:Natural History (Pliny)|Historia Naturalis]]'', XVIII, 210. Stephen C* St. Meyers[[Basil the Great]]. ''[http://www.bibleandscienceccel.comorg/ccel/archaeologyschaff/exodusdatenpnf208.viii.i.html Hexæmeron]''. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D.htm Biblical Archaeology, LL.D. (1819-1893): '''Volume VIII - Basil: Letters and Select Works'''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.* St. [[Hilary of Poitiers]]. ''On the Trinity''. Book IV.* ''[[The Date Rudder]] (Pedalion)'': Of the metaphorical ship of the Exodus According One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church of the Orthodox Christians, or all the sacred and divine canons of the holy and renowned Apostles, of the holy Councils, ecumenical as well as regional, and of individual fathers, as embodied in the original Greek text, for the sake of authenticity, and explained in the vernacular by way of rendering them more intelligible to Ancient Writers]the less educated. :Comp. Agapius a Hieromonk and Nicodemus a Monk. First printed and published A.D.1800. Trans. D. Institute for Biblical & Scientific Studies Cummings, from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (IBSSKesisoglou the Caesarian)in Athens, Greece in 1908, (Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957; Repr. Updated April 30, 2008New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983).* [http[Theophanes the Confessor|Theophanes]]. ''The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor://wwwByzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284-813''. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.geocities).com/Athens/Aegean/2444/chronologyOxford University Press, 1997.html Chronology * [[Theophilus of the Biblical PatriarchsAntioch]]. ''Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus.'' Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) - Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).
==Further reading=Secondary Sources==='''21st Century'''* Anthony Bryer. ''“Chronology and Dating”''. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=Pnkxofhi4mQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_v2_summary_r&cad=0 The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies].''' Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31-37.* Dr. Iaakov Karcz. ''"[http://www.earth-prints.org/bitstream/2122/794/1/32Karcz.pdf Implications of some early Jewish sources for estimates of earthquake hazard in the Holy Land]".'' '''Annals of Geophysics''', Vol. 47, N. 2/3, April/June 2004.* Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. ''Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis''. Conciliar Press, 2008. * Fr. [[Seraphim Rose]]. ''GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision''. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, CA, 2000. ISBN 1887904026* Frederick Deland Leete. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=GNGMe36KdQAC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_navlinks_s Christian Brotherhoods]''. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.* Paul James-Griffiths. ''[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v26/i2/tradition.asp Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition]''. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.* Paul Stephenson. ''"Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700-1204: [http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans/scyl2.html John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion"'': ''The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system]"''. November 2006.* Pavel Kuzenkov (Moscow). ''[http://www.wra1th.plus.com/byzcong/comms/Kuzenkov_paper.pdf How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals]''. '''21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies''', London 2006.* Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). ''[http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=5547 Russian Calendar (988-1917)]''. '''The Literary Encyclopedia'''. 25 September, 2008.* Prof. Dr. [http://aha.missouri.edu/people/rautman.html Marcus Louis Rautman]. ''"Time."'' In '''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=hs3iEyVRHKsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Gynaikeion+church+-flower+-witches&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 ''Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire'']'''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp.3-8.* Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. [http://www.buzzle.com/articles/gueze-ethiopian-the-counterfeit-millennium.html Gueze – ‘Ethiopian’: the Counterfeit Millennium]. Sept. 8, 2007.* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]''. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'').* ''The [[Orthodox Study Bible]]''. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008. '''20th Century'''* Barry Setterfield. ''[http://www.setterfield.org/000docs/scriptchron.htm#creation Ancient Chronology in Scripture]''. September 1999.* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder]. ''Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles.'' in '''The Harvard Theological Review''', Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp.451-481. (''* Dr. [http://www.huc.edu/faculty/faculty/wacholder.shtml Ben Zion Wacholder is Professor of Talmud and Rabbinics at Hebrew Union college (HUC)- Jewish Institute of Religion (JIR) in Cincinnati, and holds the Solomon B]. Freehof Professorship of ''Essays on Jewish Law Chronology and PracticeChronography''). Ktav Pub. House, 1976.
* Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. ''[http://books.google.ca/books?id=ZkBasQYRy4sC&printsec=frontcover Chronology of the Old Testament]''. Master Books, AZ, 1993. Repr. 2005. ''(supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).''
* E.G. Richards. ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History''. Oxford University Press, 1998. (''Good overall general review of the history and astronomical basis of the principal calendars that have been used throughout history all around the world'').
* Elias J. Bickerman. ''Chronology of the Ancient World''. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980.
* Fr. [[Stanley S. Harakas]]. ''The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers''. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.
* George Ogg. ''Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era.'' in '''Vigiliae Christianae''', Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp.2-18.
* George SynkellosHowlett, J. ''The Chronography of George Synkellos[http: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation''//www. Translnewadvent. Proforg/cathen/03731a. Drhtm Biblical Chronology]''. William Adler & Paul TuffinIn '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. OxfordNew York: Oxford University PressRobert Appleton Company, 20021908.* Jack Finegan. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible''. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998.
* K.A. Worp. ''[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/9250/1/5_039_134.pdf Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents]''. 1985. University of Amsterdam. (PDF format)
* Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.)Karl Hagen. ''"[http://bookswww.googlepolysyllabic.cacom/calhistory/earlier/books?id=PVCUZ7BTD2gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Enoch+74%22+AND+%22cycle%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 jewish The Jewish Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity]".''Polysyllabic. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (''Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission'')com.* Prof. Dr. William Adler. ''Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus''. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989. * Rev. Philip Schaff (1819-1893), Ed. ''"Era."'' '''[[w:Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge|Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge]]'''. New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908-14. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc04/Page_163.html Vol. 4, pp.163].* Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. ''The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt''. Zutphen, 1978.
* V. Grumel. ''La Chronologie''. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.
* Van der Essen, L. ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03730b.htm Chronicon Paschale]''. In '''The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)'''. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
* Yiannis E. Meimaris. ''Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia''. Athens, 1992.
[[Category:Church History]]
[[el:Έτος Κόσμου]]
[[ro:Cronologia Creaţiei în Imperiul Bizantin]]
