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Caesaropapism's chief meaning is the authority the Byzantine emperors had over the [[Orthodox Christianity|Eastern Christian Church]] from the 500s through the tenth century.<ref>Cross, F.L. & Livingstone, E.A. (1983), ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'' (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford Unversity Press, pp. 218.</ref><ref>Douglas, J.D. (1978), The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church (revised ed.), Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, pp. 173.</ref> The Byzantine emperor would typically protect the Eastern Church and manage its administration by presiding over councils and appointing [[patriarch]]s and setting territorial boundaries for their jurisdiction.<ref name="encbrit">''Encyclopedia Britannica'', vol. II, 1985, pp. 718-719.</ref> The emperor, whose control was so strong that "caesaropapism" became interchangeable with "Byzantinism," was called "''pontifex maximus''," meaning chief [[priest]], and the [[Patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]] could not hold office if he did not have the emperor's approval.<ref>Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975), ''A History of Christianity to A.D. 1500'', vol. I (revised ed.), San Francisco: Harper & Row, pp. 283; 312.</ref> Eastern men like St. [[John Chrysostom|John Chrysostom]], Patriarch of Constantinople<ref name="encbrit" /> and Pope St. [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], Patriarch of Alexandria, strongly opposed imperial control over the Church, as did Western theologians such as St. [[Hilary of Poitiers|Hilary]] and Hosius, Bishop of Cardova.<ref>Dawson, Christopher (1956), ''The Making of Europe'' (2nd ed.), New York: Meridian Books, pp. 109-110.</ref> Such emperors as [[Basiliscus]], [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], [[Justinian]], [[Heraclius]], and [[Constans II]] published several strictly ecclesiastical edicts either on their own without the mediation of church councils, or they exercised their own political influence on the councils to issue the edicts.<ref>Schaff, Philip (1974), ''History of the Christian Church: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity: A.D. 311-600'', vol. II (5th ed.), Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing Company, pp. 135.</ref> Caesaropapism was most notorious in Russia when [[w:Ivan IV the Terrible|Ivan the Terrible]] assumed the title Czar in 1547 and subordinated the [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] to the state.<ref>Bainton, Roland H. (1966), ''Christendom: A Short History of Christianity'', vol. I, New York: Harper & Row, pp. 119.</ref> This level of caesaropapism far exceeded that of the [[Byzantine Empire]].<ref>Billington, James H. (1966), ''The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture'', New York: Random House, pp. 67.</ref> Caesaropapism existed in the Orthodox Church in Turkey until 1923 and in Cyprus until 1977, when Archbishop Makrios III reposed.<ref>Ware, Timothy (1980), ''The Orthodox Church'' (revised ed.), New York: Penguin Books, pp. 98.</ref> However, in no way is caesaropapism a part of Orthodox [[dogma]]. The historical reality, as opposed to doctrinal endorsement or dogmatic definition, of caesaropapism stems from, according to Metropolitan [[Kallistos (Ware) of Diokleia|Kallistos Ware]], the confusion of the [[Byzantine Empire]] with the [[Kingdom of God]] and the zeal of the Byzantines "to establish here on earth a living icon of God's government in heaven."<ref>Ware, Timothy (1980), ''The Orthodox Church'' (revised ed.), New York: Penguin Books, pp. 50.</ref>