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<div>'''Chant of Constantinople''' more commonly known as '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100354Church Music2011-05-01T19:16:39Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Church music''' in the Orthodox Christian Church has been a vital component of worship in the divine services since the foundation of Christianity, following in the traditions established during [[Old Testament]] times. The music and styles of today are of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical developments of the classical age, on Jewish music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, and Europe. Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpathian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
*[[Syrian chant]]<br />
*[[Coptic chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
*[[Organ]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100353Church Music2011-05-01T19:16:01Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Church music''' in the Orthodox Christian Church has been a vital component of worship in the divine services since the foundation of Christianity, following in the traditions established during [[Old Testament]] times. The music and styles of today are of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical developments of the classical age, on Jewish music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus, and Europe. Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant|Psalmody]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpathian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
*[[Syrian chant]]<br />
*[[Coptic chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
*[[Organ]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100352Byzantine Chant2011-05-01T19:15:44Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Psalmody''' (greek: ψαλμωδία), the Chant of Constantinople, more commonly known as '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100343Byzantine Chant2011-05-01T16:40:42Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Psalmodia''' (greek: ψαλμωδία), the Chant of Constantinople, more commonly known as '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100342Byzantine Chant2011-05-01T16:39:41Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Chant of Constantinople''', '''ψαλμωδία''', or more commonly known as '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100341Byzantine Chant2011-05-01T16:38:49Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''ψαλμωδία''', the'''Chant of Constantinople''', more commonly known as '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100340Church Music2011-05-01T16:38:00Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant|Psalmodia]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpathian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
*[[Syrian chant]]<br />
*[[Coptic chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy/wide&diff=100183Template:Clergy/wide2011-04-24T14:27:04Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| style="clear: both; text-align: center;" class="toccolours"<br />
|- <br />
! width="100%" style="padding:0 0 0 50px;" | <small>This article forms part of the series</small><br><font size=4>[[Clergy]]</font><br />
| width="90" rowspan=2 | [[Image:Antiochian local synod.jpg|250px|Antiochian Local Synod]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
{| style="background:none;"<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Major orders]]''' <br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" |[[Bishop]] | [[Presbyter|Priest]] | [[Deacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Minor orders]]'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" |[[Subdeacon]] | [[Reader]] | [[Cantor]] | [[Acolyte]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Other orders'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Chorepiscopos]] | [[Exorcist]] | [[Doorkeeper]] | [[Deaconess]] - [[Presbityde]]<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Episcopal titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" |[[Patriarch]] | [[Catholicos]] | [[Archbishop]] | [[Metropolitan]] | [[Auxiliary bishop|Auxiliary]] | [[Titular bishop|Titular]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Priestly titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Protopresbyter]] | [[Archpriest]] | [[Protosyngellos]] | [[Economos]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Diaconal titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Archdeacon]] | [[Protodeacon]]<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Minor titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Protopsaltes]] - [[Lampadarios]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Monastic titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Archimandrite]] | [[Abbot]] - [[Hegumen]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Related'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Ordination]] | [[Vestments]] | [[Presbeia]] | [[Honorifics]] | [[Clergy awards]] | [[Exarch]] | [[Proistamenos]] | [[Vicar]]<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;"|<small>[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy/wide&action=edit Edit this box]</small><br />
|}<br />
|}<noinclude><br />
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[[Category:Series templates|Clergy]]<br />
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</noinclude></div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy&diff=100182Template:Clergy2011-04-24T14:26:49Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| class="toccolours" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;"<br />
| colspan="2" |<small>This article forms part of the series</small><br><font size=4>[[Clergy]]</font><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2"|[[Image:Antiochian local synod.jpg|145px|]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Major orders]]''' <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Bishop]] - [[Presbyter|Priest]] - [[Deacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Minor orders]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Subdeacon]] - [[Reader]]<br>[[Cantor]] - [[Acolyte]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Other orders'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Chorepiscopos]] - [[Exorcist]]<br>[[Doorkeeper]] - [[Deaconess]] - [[Presbytide]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Episcopal titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Patriarch]] - [[Catholicos]]<br>[[Archbishop]] - [[Metropolitan]]<br>[[Auxiliary bishop|Auxiliary]] - [[Titular bishop|Titular]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Priestly titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Archimandrite]] - [[Protopresbyter]]<br>[[Archpriest]] - [[Protosyngellos]]<br>[[Economos]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Diaconal titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Archdeacon]] - [[Protodeacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Minor titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Protopsaltes]] - [[Lampadarios]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Monastic titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Abbot]] - [[Igumen]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Related'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Ordination]] - [[Vestments]]<br>[[Presbeia]] - [[Honorifics]]<br>[[Clergy awards]] - [[Exarch]]<br>[[Proistamenos]] - [[Vicar]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<small>[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy&action=edit Edit this box]</small><br />
|}<br />
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</noinclude></div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy&diff=100181Template:Clergy2011-04-24T14:26:20Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| class="toccolours" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;"<br />
| colspan="2" |<small>This article forms part of the series</small><br><font size=4>[[Clergy]]</font><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2"|[[Image:Antiochian local synod.jpg|145px|]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Major orders]]''' <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Bishop]] - [[Presbyter|Priest]] - [[Deacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Minor orders]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Subdeacon]] - [[Reader]]<br>[[Cantor]] - [[Acolyte]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Other orders'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Chorepiscopos]] - [[Exorcist]]<br>[[Doorkeeper]] - [[Deaconess]] - [[Presbytera]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Episcopal titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Patriarch]] - [[Catholicos]]<br>[[Archbishop]] - [[Metropolitan]]<br>[[Auxiliary bishop|Auxiliary]] - [[Titular bishop|Titular]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Priestly titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Archimandrite]] - [[Protopresbyter]]<br>[[Archpriest]] - [[Protosyngellos]]<br>[[Economos]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Diaconal titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Archdeacon]] - [[Protodeacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Minor titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Protopsaltes]] - [[Lampadarios]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Monastic titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Abbot]] - [[Igumen]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Related'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Ordination]] - [[Vestments]]<br>[[Presbeia]] - [[Honorifics]]<br>[[Clergy awards]] - [[Exarch]]<br>[[Proistamenos]] - [[Vicar]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<small>[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy&action=edit Edit this box]</small><br />
|}<br />
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[[Category:Series templates|Clergy]]<br />
</noinclude></div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy&diff=100180Template:Clergy2011-04-24T14:26:01Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| class="toccolours" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:center;"<br />
| colspan="2" |<small>This article forms part of the series</small><br><font size=4>[[Clergy]]</font><br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2"|[[Image:Antiochian local synod.jpg|145px|]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Major orders]]''' <br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Bishop]] - [[Presbyter|Priest]] - [[Deacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Minor orders]]'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Subdeacon]] - [[Reader]]<br>[[Cantor]] - [[Acolyte]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Other orders'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Chorepiscopos]] - [[Exorcist]]<br>[[Doorkeeper]] - [[Deaconess]] [[Presbytera]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Episcopal titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Patriarch]] - [[Catholicos]]<br>[[Archbishop]] - [[Metropolitan]]<br>[[Auxiliary bishop|Auxiliary]] - [[Titular bishop|Titular]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Priestly titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Archimandrite]] - [[Protopresbyter]]<br>[[Archpriest]] - [[Protosyngellos]]<br>[[Economos]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Diaconal titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Archdeacon]] - [[Protodeacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Minor titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Protopsaltes]] - [[Lampadarios]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Monastic titles'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Abbot]] - [[Igumen]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Related'''<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="font-size: 90%;"|[[Ordination]] - [[Vestments]]<br>[[Presbeia]] - [[Honorifics]]<br>[[Clergy awards]] - [[Exarch]]<br>[[Proistamenos]] - [[Vicar]]<br />
|-<br />
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|<small>[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy&action=edit Edit this box]</small><br />
|}<br />
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<noinclude>{{bigtemplate}}(The [[Template:Clergy/wide]] may be a better fit.)<br />
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This template displays the series box. It does not include the article in any category. <br />
[[Category:Series templates|Clergy]]<br />
</noinclude></div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy/wide&diff=100179Template:Clergy/wide2011-04-24T14:23:05Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{| style="clear: both; text-align: center;" class="toccolours"<br />
|- <br />
! width="100%" style="padding:0 0 0 50px;" | <small>This article forms part of the series</small><br><font size=4>[[Clergy]]</font><br />
| width="90" rowspan=2 | [[Image:Antiochian local synod.jpg|250px|Antiochian Local Synod]]<br />
|-<br />
| colspan="2" |<br />
{| style="background:none;"<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Major orders]]''' <br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" |[[Bishop]] | [[Presbyter|Priest]] | [[Deacon]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''[[Minor orders]]'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" |[[Subdeacon]] | [[Reader]] | [[Cantor]] | [[Acolyte]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Other orders'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Chorepiscopos]] | [[Exorcist]] | [[Doorkeeper]] | [[Deaconess]] [[Presbityde]]<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Episcopal titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" |[[Patriarch]] | [[Catholicos]] | [[Archbishop]] | [[Metropolitan]] | [[Auxiliary bishop|Auxiliary]] | [[Titular bishop|Titular]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Priestly titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Protopresbyter]] | [[Archpriest]] | [[Protosyngellos]] | [[Economos]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Diaconal titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Archdeacon]] | [[Protodeacon]]<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Minor titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Protopsaltes]] - [[Lampadarios]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Monastic titles'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Archimandrite]] | [[Abbot]] - [[Hegumen]]<br />
|-<br />
| align="right" colspan="2" style="font-size: 95%; background:#ccf"|'''Related'''<br />
| align="left" style="font-size: 90%;" | [[Ordination]] | [[Vestments]] | [[Presbeia]] | [[Honorifics]] | [[Clergy awards]] | [[Exarch]] | [[Proistamenos]] | [[Vicar]]<br />
<br />
|-<br />
| style="text-align:center;"|<small>[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Template:Clergy/wide&action=edit Edit this box]</small><br />
|}<br />
|}<noinclude><br />
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[[Category:Series templates|Clergy]]<br />
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(If you edit this box, please keep it consistent with [[:Template:Clergy]]) <br />
</noinclude></div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Exorcist&diff=100178Exorcist2011-04-24T14:21:41Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
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<div>An '''exorcist''' is an extinct office within the [[minor orders]] of [[clergy]]. The primary duty of exorcists was as the instructor of [[catechumen]]s.<br />
<br />
==External link==<br />
*[http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7079 Exorcism in the Orthodox Church] by Rev. George C. Papademetriou, Ph.D. ([[GOARCH]])<br />
<br />
<br />
{{clergy/wide}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Clergy]]<br />
<br />
[[mk:Егзорцист]]<br />
[[ro:Exorcist]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Western_Rite_Criticism&diff=100177Western Rite Criticism2011-04-24T14:01:31Z<p>Orthophil: /* Lack of liturgical continuity */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{westernrite}}<br />
The Western Rite in the Orthodox Church is not without its critics. Objections are made in regards to desire for liturgical uniformity within Orthodoxy and fears that the Western Rite would produce division within the Church. Some question the sincerity of Western Rite converts, just as some question the [[conversion]]s of those within the Byzantine Rite. Finally, some complain about a lack of organic liturgical continuity, or will not attend a Western Rite Eucharist. However, no Orthodox [[parish]] may deny the [[Eucharist]] to visiting faithful of the canonical Western Rite, regardless of their feelings about the concept of Western Rite Orthodoxy. There have been no [[schism]]s within the episcopacy of the Orthodox Church regarding the issue of Western Rite parishes.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Overview==<br />
Whether the Western Rite will grow in its acceptance by Orthodox Christians who follow the [[Byzantine]] Rite remains to be seen. In the meantime, the Orthodox bishops who oversee Western Rite parishes&mdash;and many who oversee no Western Rite parishes&mdash;continue to declare their Western flocks to be true Orthodox Christians and regard them as fully in communion with the rest of the Church. <br />
<br />
==Byzantine only==<br />
Some argue that there is only the Byzantine liturgical tradition can be viable within the Church. The argument's major weakness is that it ignores the wide liturgical variety characteristic of the first millennium of the Church's history. Many Orthodox Christians currently boast of the Church's liturgical homogeneity, claiming that, no matter where one might go in the Orthodox world, the [[liturgy]] will be familiar, even if it's in another language. However, their first millennium counterparts would have been incapable of making such a claim&mdash;even if only the Eastern liturgical tradition were taken into account. It wasn't until the 13th century that the tradition of the Great Church (i.e., [[Hagia Sophia (Constantinople)|Hagia Sophia]]) became normative for the whole of Orthodoxy.<br />
<br />
==Divisiveness==<br />
Another criticism is that the Western Rite is inherently divisive. Following different liturgical traditions than their neighboring Byzantine Rite Orthodox Christians, those using the Western Rite do not share liturgical unity with them and present an unfamiliar face to the majority of Orthodox Christians. Again, this argument is based on the relatively new notion of liturgical homogeneity. Likewise, differences exist between the various uses of the Byzantine Rite.<br />
<br />
==An Orthodox Unia?==<br />
Related to liturgical division, the question of ongoing administrative division has been raised. The situation of Western Orthodox parishes has been compared with the status of the autonomous [[Uniate]] churches under the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. For centuries, there have been hierarchical churches in [[full communion]] with and in subjection to the Vatican, but which the Pope allows to follow Byzantine liturgical customs and rules. The Uniates, despite usages that more closely resemble the majority of Orthodox Christians, share a common dogmatic belief with Latin Rite Catholics. Analogously, the Western Rite Orthodox share the same faith as their Byzantine Rite Orthodox brethren.<br />
<br />
However, unlike the [[Uniates]], Western Rite Orthodox congregations are not the result of large-scale ecclesiastical political machinations and [[schism]] but rather of small-scale genuine conversion to Orthodoxy by individuals and congregations. Also, Western Rite congregations all adhere to the same bishops as their Byzantine brethren; they do not constitute a separate church of their own, unlike the Byzantine Catholics ("Uniates") within Roman Catholicism. Criticism of the Western Rite based on its similarity with the Uniates has been called guilt by association&mdash;overplaying a superficial similarity of form. Because the ideas are analogous, the argument goes, they must therefore both be inauthentic developments. Yet the more firmly established criticisms of Uniatism usually have nothing to do with rite but rather with dogma, ecclesiology, and allegedly subversive missionary work.<br />
<br />
==Conversion without conversion==<br />
Another criticism often leveled against the Western Rite is based on the mainly [[convert]] makeup of most of its parishes. The argument states that such Christians want to be Orthodox but "not too Orthodox," so they keep their familiar rites under a new bishop. The unstated assumption behind this argument, however, is similar to the argument against all non-Byzantine liturgical traditions: That Orthodoxy includes only the Byzantine Rite, and so if one wants to be truly Orthodox, one must also be Eastern. Again, history shows otherwise. <br />
<br />
Additionally, this argument also fails to take into account the longstanding history of some of these parishes. For many of them, the Western Rite with an Orthodox Christian faith (though certainly sometimes outside canonical bounds) genuinely is the faith of their parents, grandparents, and great-grandparents. The argument fails to address the question of substance&mdash;that is, it does not address whether and why the Western Rite is or is not actually Orthodox.<br />
<br />
It is an accident of history that the Western Rite is not yet firmly established again within the Orthodox Church. That most of its adherents are converts is not germane to the question of its Orthodoxy. One might level the same accusation at predominantly convert Byzantine Rite parishes, that they need to learn to give up everything familiar in order to become Orthodox, whether it's language, culture, or some other facet of life. Oddly enough, some have argued precisely that, saying, for instance, that English is incapable of expressing the Orthodox faith.<br />
<br />
==Lack of liturgical continuity==<br />
Finally, more historically minded criticisms of the Western Rite usually center around the idea that it is untenable to try to revive a liturgical tradition which was lost centuries ago when the West fell away from the [[Orthodox Church]]. This argument essentially states that, because the Western Rite died out in the Church, and because a continuous living tradition is a necessary element of liturgical practice, the Western Rite ought to be abandoned and only developments from the Byzantine Rite ought to be pursued.<br />
<br />
Another response to such criticisms is that the the vast majority of the rites being used by Western Rite Orthodox Christians are not new, but mainly predate the [[Great Schism]]. The ordinary of the [[Liturgy of St. Gregory]], for example, predates the schism. (Many devotions developed after the schism with which critics take issue are in fact paraliturgical.)<br />
<br />
Further, a number of the pre-schism texts (not simply the ordinary but the propers) have been fully restored and translated, such as the [[Sarum Rite]], a local use of the [[Roman rite]] from the pre-schismatic period[http://books.google.com/books?as_brr=1&id=cyUBAAAAQAAJ&dq=Rouen+Missal&jtp=615#PRA1-PR23,M1]. (The historicity of this claim is disputed by modern Anglican scholars, however.[http://anglicansociety.org/corner/sarum_use.html]) Translations of the Sarum rite are currently utilized in [[ROCOR]] as well as the [[Old Calendarists|Old Calendarist]] [[Holy Synod of Milan|Milan Synod]], the latter also having some Mozarabic rite communities. As well, the Celtic and Ambrosian rites have been used on occasion by the [[Church of Russia|Moscow Patriarchate]]. <br />
<br />
Further, the now fairly well-known [[Liturgy of St. James]] once fell out of use throughout most of the Church and has now been revived in many places to be celebrated on [[October 23]].<br />
<br />
Also special form of Roman Rite Divine Liturgy, the [[Liturgy Of St. Peter the Apostle]] was used with continuity in Holy Mount Athos, and by some Russian [[Old Believers]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
===Apologiae===<br />
*From [http://westernorthodox.blogspot.com/ westernorthodox.blogspot.com]:<br />
**[http://westernorthodox.blogspot.com/2007/05/western-rite-is-not-reverse-uniatism.html The Western Rite is Not "Reverse Uniatism"]<br />
**[http://westernorthodox.blogspot.com/2006/03/message-from-metropolitan-western-rite.html Met. PHILIP (Saliba)'s Promise]: Western Rite churches will not be Byzantized.<br />
**[http://westernorthodox.blogspot.com/search/label/Anti-WR%20Criticism Dealing with Anti-WR Criticism], from the Western Orthodoxy blog.<br />
*From [http://www.westernorthodox.com/ www.westernorthodox.com]:<br />
**[http://www.westernorthodox.com/basil Comments on the Western Rite] by Bishop [[Basil (Essey) of Wichita]]<br />
**[http://www.westernorthodox.com/Lux-Occidentalis Lux Occidentalis (PDF)] ''The Orthodox Western Rite and the Liturgical Tradition of Western Orthodox Christianity, with reference to The Orthodox Missal, Saint Luke's Priory Press, Stanton, NJ, 1995'' by the Rev'd John Charles Connely<br />
**[http://www.westernorthodox.com/greekdenver Doctrinal Issues: Western Rite Orthodoxy], from the ''Diocesan News for Clergy and Laity'' (February 1995), Greek Orthodox Diocese of Denver<br />
*[http://www.saintpeterorthodox.org/write.htm Western Rite Orthodoxy: Its history, its validity, and its opportunity], by Annette Milkovich, including an interview with Fr. Paul W.S. Schneirla, constituting a rough Western Rite "FAQ"<br />
*[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/sergius.html On the Question of Western Orthodoxy], by Patriarch [[Sergius I (Stragorodsky) of Moscow]] in a letter to [[Vladimir Lossky]]<br />
<br />
===Criticism===<br />
*[http://www.schmemann.org/byhim/westernrite.html The Western Rite], by Fr. [[Alexander Schmemann]]<br />
*From [http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/index.html www.holy-trinity.org/modern]:<br />
**[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/schmemann.html Notes and Comments on the "Western Rite"], by Fr. Alexander Schmemann<br />
**[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/news-encyclical.html News: Bishop Anthony Issues Encyclical on "Western Rite"]<br />
**[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/correspondence.html Correspondence on the Western Rite] between Bishop [[Anthony (Gergiannakis) of San Francisco]] and Fr. Paul W.S. Schneirla<br />
**[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/ware.html Some Thoughts on the "Western Rite" In Orthodoxy], by Bishop [[Kallistos (Ware) of Diokleia]]<br />
**[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/tsichlis.html The Western Rite - Some Final Comments], by Fr. [[Steven Peter Tsichlis]]<br />
**[http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/johnson.html The "Western Rite": Is It Right for the Orthodox?], by Fr. Michael Johnson<br />
<br />
[[Category:Western Rite]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=100176Gregorian Chant2011-04-24T13:57:13Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''', or less commonly known as '''Carolingian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Divine Liturgy and other ritual services.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=100175Gregorian Chant2011-04-24T13:56:05Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''', or less commonly known as '''Carolingian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[Wikipedia:monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Divine Liturgy and other ritual services.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=100070Gregorian Chant2011-04-17T11:31:15Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''', or less commonly known as '''Carolingian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Divine Liturgy and other ritual services. It is named after [[Gregory the Dialogist|Pope Gregory I, the Great]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=100069Gregorian Chant2011-04-17T11:30:52Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''', or less commonly known as '''Carolingian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Divine Liturgy and other ritual services. It is named after [[Gregory the Dialogist|Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100068Byzantine Chant2011-04-17T11:29:11Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Chant of Constantinople''', more commonly known as '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=100067Gregorian Chant2011-04-17T11:28:25Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''', or less commonly known as '''Carolingian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Gregory the Dialogist|Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=100066Gregorian Chant2011-04-17T11:28:09Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''' (or less commonly known as '''Carolingian chant''') is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Gregory the Dialogist|Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Jacob_Baradaeus&diff=100031Jacob Baradaeus2011-04-16T12:43:14Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{oriental}}<br />
<br />
Metropolitan '''Jacob Baradaeus''' of Edessa is a father and [[saint]] of the [[Church of Antioch (Syriac)|Syriac Orthodox Church]] and the [[Church of India|Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]. He is widely recognized for his labors to save the movement in Syria and Mesopotamia opposed to the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]] from dying out under the persecution of the east Roman emperors. Jacob Baradaeus is commemorated on [[July 29]] and [[November 28]] by the [[Jacobite]] church.<br />
<br />
==Life==<br />
Jacob was born in 505 at Tal Mawzalt (modern day Verensehir, Turkey) to the Priest Theophilus bar Manu. At the age of 2 he was given to the Phaselita Monastery near Nisibis, where he mastered the Syriac and Greek languages and was given a comprehensive theological education and spiritual formation in the [[monasticism|monastic]] life. Thanks to his spiritual formation in the monastic life Jacob became a theologian as well as a popular preacher and great scholar. Because of his rough, ragged garments he became known as ''Burd'ono'' or ''Baradaeus''.<br />
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There came a time during the persecutions that followed Chalcedon in the mid-500s that the Syriac Orthodox Church only had three metropolitans left throughout its territory, the rest having been driven into exile or [[martyr]]ed by the East Romans. Seeing this Jacob traveled to Constantinople in 528, being received there by St. [[Theodora (wife of Justinian)|Theodora]], wife of the Emperor [[Justinian]] and daughter of a Syriac Orthodox [[priest]] from Mabug. After sojourning for a number of years at a [[monastery]] in Constantinople, Jacob was consecrated Metropolitan of Edessa in 543 by the deposed Patriarch Anthimus of Constantinople, the exiled Pope Theodosius of Alexandria, the exiled Metropolitan Constantius of Laodicea, and two other [[bishop]]s imprisoned with Pope Theodosius in the imperial capital.<br />
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Following his consecration Jacob left Constantinople and began his wide-ranging travels in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Syria. Everywhere he went Jacob celebrated the divine services and taught and encouraged the monophysite faithful who opposed Chalcedon. With the blessing of Pope Theodosius he also helped the remaining free bishops to consecrate new bishops to replace those executed or driven into exile, eventually consecrating some 27 bishops for the Orthodox of the Churches of Alexandria and Antioch. Among these were Patriarch Paul of Antioch, consecrated with Metropolitan Eugene of Seleucia in 550.<br />
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Jacob's [[relics]] remained at the monastery of his repose until 622, after which they were translated to the Phaselita Monastery by Metropolitan Mor Zacchaeus of Tella.<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02282a.htm Jacob Baradaeus] (Catholic Encyclopedia)<br />
*[http://www.syrianchurch.org/bio/styacoubburdono.htm St. Yacoub Burd’ono] (Malankara Syriac Christian Resources)<br />
*[http://www.soc-wus.org/ourchurch/St.%20Jacob%20Baradaeus.htm St. Jacob Baradaeus] (Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Vicariate of the Western United States)<br />
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[[Category:Bishops]]<br />
[[Category:Oriental Orthodox]]<br />
[[Category:Non-Chalcedonian Saints]]<br />
[[Category:Syrian Saints]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_of_Antioch_(Syriac)&diff=100030Church of Antioch (Syriac)2011-04-16T12:41:05Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
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<div>{{orientalchurches}}<br />
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The '''Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch''' or '''Patriarchate of Antioch''' is one of the [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches. Prior to the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 the Church of Antioch was united, but after the Council two lines of patriarchs arose, one supported by the East Roman Empire that favored Chalcedon and another persecuted by the East Romans that rejected Chalcedon. The Church is also known as the ''Jacobite'' Church after one of the more prominent leaders of the movement against Chalcedon, [[Jacob Baradaeus]], and follows the [[West Syrian Rite]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The Syriac Orthodox Church is one of the oldest churches in the world, having its roots in the city of Antioch (modern Antakya, Turkey) where the disciples of the Lord were first called Christians. Antioch was one of the great cities of the East under the Roman Empire and played a central role in the life of the Church in Cilicia, Syria, and Mesopotamia. At the Council of Nicaea in 325 it was recognized as a patriarchate alongside Rome and Alexandria.<br />
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Although most Orthodox in Antioch spoke Greek, in the countryside Aramic (modern Syriac) was more widely spoken and consequently Syriac took its place as one of the ancient liturgical languages of the Church. It has the distinction of being the language spoken by the Lord, unlike the Greek used to write the Gospels and other books of the New Testament. While Antioch was the preeminent center of the Church of Antioch early in its history, the cities of Edessa (modern Urfa) and Nisibis (modern Nusaybin) also played a significant role in the development of Syriac Orthodoxy.<br />
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The Church of Antioch played a central role in the first three ecumenical councils that shaped the doctrine and structure of the Orthodox Church. After the split over Chalcedon a struggle developed within the Church for the control of the patriarchate, with the Roman emperors generally favoring those in favor of Chalcedon, but occasionally also supporting those who opposed it. In 518 the anti-Chalcedon patriarch, St. [[Severus of Antioch]], was exiled from the city and never returned. Since then the patriarchs of the Syriac Orthodox Church have changed the seat of their patriarchate several times. Aleppo, Malatya, Diyarbakir, Mardin, and Homs all served as seats of the Patriarchs of Antioch, who only moved to Damascus in 1959.<br />
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Despite its glorious past the Syriac Orthodox Church is today a small remnant of what it once was due to the persecution of the East Romans in the 500s and 600s that was followed by the arrival of Islam, the atrocities of the Crusaders in the 1000s and 1100s, the depredations of the Mongols, and the genocides conducted under the Ottoman Turks and Kurds in the late 1800s and early 1900s in the heartlands of the Church in upper Mesopotamia (known as the Sayfo or Sword). Despite all of this the Church has continued to produce great scholars, theologians, and saints through the centuries, among them Sts. [[Jacob of Edessa]] and [[Gregory of Ebroyo]] ('Bar Hebraeus').<br />
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==Church Worldwide Today==<br />
The Syriac Orthodox Church today is headquartered at Bab Touma in Damascus, Syria. Excluding the patriarchal Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church in India the Syriac Orthodox Church is divided into 27 archdioceses and patriarchal vicariates scattered across the globe. The current primate of the Church is Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I (Iwas) of Antioch and All the East.<br />
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== Church of Antioch in India ==<br />
The Orthodox Church in India is in a difficult stage due to conflict between the factions of the ''Patriarch of Antioch'' and the ''Catholicos of East''. As neither is ready for a compromise there are many civil disputes currently in the courts.<br />
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At present there are two factions of the Orthodox Church in India. They are:<br />
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* [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]<br />
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This Church recognizes the Patriarch of Antioch as the highest ranking hierarch of the Church of Antioch, but without any administrative authority in India. The legally (by Malankara Association as per the decision of the Supreme Court of India) elected Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan is the primate of this Church, which claims autocephaly under Antioch. <br />
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* [[Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church|Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church]]<br />
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The Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church recognizes the Patriarch of Antioch as its head in both a spiritual and an administrative sense, although the Patriarchate recognizes it as autonomous under its primate, the Catholicos of the East, who is also recognized as second in rank within the Church of Antioch and is responsible for enthroning the Patriarch of Antioch.<br />
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==Structure (Outside India)==<br />
*Archdiocese of Aleppo (Syria)<br />
*Archdiocese of Baghdad and Basra (Iraq)<br />
*Archdiocese of Beirut (Lebanon)<br />
*Archdiocese of Dayro d'Mor Mattai (Iraq)<br />
*Archdiocese of Homs and Hama (Syria)<br />
*Archdiocese of Jazirah and the Euphrates (Syria)<br />
*Archdiocese of Mosul (Iraq)<br />
*Archdiocese of Mount Abdin (Turkey)<br />
*Archdiocese of Mount Lebanon (Lebanon)<br />
*Archdiocese of Scandinavia<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Adiyaman (Turkey)<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Argentina<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Australia and New Zealand (Oceania)<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Belgium and France<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Brazil<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Canada<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Constantinople (Turkey)<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Damascus (Syria)<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of the Eastern United States<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Great Britain<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Jerusalem and the Holy Land (Israel, Jordan, and Palestine)<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Mardin (Turkey)<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of the Netherlands<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Northern Germany<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Sweden<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Switzerland and Austria<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of the Western United States<br />
*Patriarchal Vicariate of Zahle and Bekaa (Lebanon)<br />
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==Hierarchy (Outside India)==<br />
*Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I of Antioch and All the East<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Gregorios of Mosul<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Severios of Baghdad and Basra<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Gregorios of Aleppo<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Theophilos of Mount Lebanon<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Timotheos of Tur Abdin<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Filuxinos of Constantinople<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Julius of Sodertalje (Scandinavia)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Ostatheos of Hassakah (Jazirah and the Euphrates)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Ivanios of Damascus<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Clemis of Burbank (Western United States)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Severios of Jerusalem<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Cyril of Teaneck (Eastern United States)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Dionysius of Arth (Switzerland and Austria)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Dioscoros of Sodertalje (Sweden)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Silwanos of Homs and Hama<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Philoxenos of Mardin<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Athanasius of Montreal (Canada)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Militius of Sydney (Australia and New Zealand)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Timotheos of Dayro d'Mor Mattai<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Nicholovos of La Plata (Argentina)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Yostinos of Zahle and Bekaa<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Clemis of Beirut<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Gregorios of Adiyaman<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Severios of Brussels (Belgium and France)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Athanasius of London (Great Britain)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Julius of Warburg (Northern Germany)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Polycarpus of Dayro d'Mor Afrem (Netherlands)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Severius, Auxiliary (St. Ephraim's Seminary in Mosul)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Philexinos, Patriarchal Auxiliary (St. Ephraim's Seminary in Damascus)<br />
*Metropolitan Mor Dionysius, Patriarchal Auxiliary (Patriarchal Offices)<br />
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== Official Name ==<br />
In 2000 the Holy Synod ruled that the name of the Church in English should be the "Syriac Orthodox Church". Before this it was, and often still is, known as the "Syrian Orthodox Church." The name was changed to disassociate the Church from the polity of Syria. The official name of the Church in Syriac is ʿIdto Suryoyto Triṣuṯ Šuḇḥo, which was not changed in the 2000 ruling.<br />
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== External Links ==<br />
*[http://www.syrian-orthodox.com/news.php Patriarchate of Antioch] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://new.alepposuryoye.com/ Archdiocese of Aleppo] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://zunoro.com/ Archdiocese of Homs and Hama] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://www.syriacorthodox-mlb.com/ Archdiocese of Mount Lebanon] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://www.syrianorthodoxchurch.com/ Patriarchal Vicariate of Canada] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://www.reyono.net/default.aspx?s=14 Patriarchal Vicariate of Constantinople]<br />
*[http://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/ Patriarchal Vicariate of the Eastern United States] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://www.soc-wus.org/ Patriarchal Vicariate of the Western United States] (Official Website)<br />
*[http://www.jacobitesyrianchurch.org/ Malankara Syriac Orthodox Church]<br />
*[http://sor.cua.edu/ Syriac Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://www.syrianchurch.org/ Malankara Syriac Christian Resources]<br />
*[http://www.socdigest.org/ Shroro - The Syriac Orthodox Christian Digest]<br />
*[http://www.suryanikadim.org/ Syriac Orthodox Church in Turkey]<br />
*[http://www.syrianorthodoxchurch.com/ Syriac Orthodox Church in Canada]<br />
*[[Wikipedia:Syriac Orthodox Church|''Syriac Orthodox Church'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
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[[Category:Jurisdictions|Antioch (Syriac)]]<br />
[[Category:Oriental Orthodox|Antioch]]<br />
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[[es:Iglesia Ortodoxa Siriana]]<br />
[[fr:Église d'Antioche (syriaque)]]<br />
[[ro:Biserica Antiohiei (Siriacă)]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Antiochene_Rite&diff=100029Antiochene Rite2011-04-16T12:38:23Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
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<div>{{orthodoxize}}<br />
'''Antiochene Rite''' designates the family of [[liturgy|liturgies]] originally used in the [[Patriarchate of Antioch]]: that of the Apostolic Constitutions; then that of [[Liturgy of St. James|St. James]], and the other Syriac Anaphoras. The line may be further continued to the [[Byzantine Rite]] (the older [[Liturgy of St. Basil]] and the later and shorter one of St. [[John Chrysostom]]), and through it to the Armenian use.<br />
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==Liturgy of the Apostolic Constitutions==<br />
The oldest known form that can be described as a complete liturgy is that of the Apostolic Constitutions. It is also the first member of the line of Antiochene uses. The Apostolic Constitutions consist of eight books purporting to have been written by St. [[Clement of Rome]]. The first six books are an interpolated edition of the ''Didascalia Apostolorum'' ("Teaching of the Apostles and Disciples", written in the first half of the third century and since edited in a Syriac version by de Lagarde, 1854); the seventh book is an equally modified version of the [[Didache]] (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, probably written in the first century, and found by Philotheos Bryennios in 1883) with a collection of prayers. The eighth book contains a complete liturgy and the eighty-five "Apostolic Canons". There is also part of a liturgy modified from the Didascalia in the second book.<br />
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It has been suggested that the compiler of the Apostolic Constitutions may be the same person as the author of the six spurious letters of St. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] (Pseudo-Ignatius). In any case he was a Syrian Christian, probably an Apollinarist, living in or near Antioch either at the end of the fourth or the beginning of the fifth century. And the liturgy that he describes in his eighth book is that used in his time by the Church of Antioch, with certain modifications of his own. That the writer was an Antiochene Syrian and that he describes the liturgical use of his own country is shown by various details, such as the precedence given to Antioch (VII, xlvi, VIII, x, etc.); his mention of Christmas (VIII, xxxiii), which was kept at Antioch since about 375, nowhere else in the East till about 430 (Louis Duchesne, Origines du culte chrétien, 248); the fact that [[Holy Week]] and [[Lent]] together make up seven weeks (V, xiii) as at Antioch, whereas in Palestine and Egypt, as throughout the West, Holy Week was the sixth week of Lent; that the chief source of his "Apostolic Canons" is the [[Synod of Antioch]] in encœniis (341); and especially by the fact that his liturgy is obviously built up on the same lines as all the Syrian ones. There are, however, modifications of his own in the prayers, Creed, and Gloria, where the style and the idioms are obviously those of the interpolator of the Didascalia (see the examples in Brightman, "Liturgies", I, xxxiii-xxxiv), and are often very like those of Pseudo-Ignatius also (ib., xxxv). The rubrics are added by the compiler, apparently from his own observations. <br />
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The liturgy of the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions, then, represents the use of Antioch in the fourth century. Its order is this: First comes the "[[Mass]] of the [[Catechumen]]s". After the readings (of the Law, the Prophets, the Epistles, Acts, and Gospels) the bishop greets the people with II Cor., xiii, 13 (The grace of Our Lord Jesus Christ and the charity of God and the communication of the Holy Ghost be with you all). They answer: "And with thy spirit"; and he "speaks to the people words of comfort." There then follows a litany for the catechumens, to each invocation of which the people answer "Kyrie eleison"; the bishop says a collect and the deacon dismisses the catechumens. Similar litanies and collects follow for the Energumens, the Illuminandi (photizómenoi, people about to be baptized) and the public penitents, and each time they are dismissed after the collect for them. The "Mass of the Faithful" begins with a longer litany for various causes, for peace, the Church, bishops ([[James the Greater|James]], Clement, [[Evodius]], and [[Annianus]] are named), [[priest]]s, [[deacon]]s, servers, [[reader]]s, singers, virgins, widows, orphans, married people, the newly baptized, prisoners, enemies, persecutors etc., and finally "for every Christian soul". After the litany follows its collect, then another greeting from the bishop and the kiss of peace. Before the Offertory the deacons stand at the men's doors and the subdeacons at those of the women "that no one may go out, nor the door be opened", and the deacon again warns all catechumens, infidels, and heretics to retire, the mothers to look after their children, no one to stay in hypocrisy, and all to stand in fear and trembling. The deacons bring the offerings to the bishop at the altar. The priests stand around, two deacons wave fans (‘ripídia) over the bread and wine and the Anaphora (canon) begins. The bishop again greets the people with the words of II Cor., xiii, 13, and they answer as before: "And with thy spirit". He says: "Lift up your mind." R. "We have it to the Lord." V. "Let us thank the Lord." R. "Right and just." He takes up their word: "It is truly right and above all just to sing to Thee, Who art truly God, existing before all creatures, from Whom all fatherhood in heaven and on earth is named.…" and so the Eucharistic prayer begins. He speaks of the "only begotten Son, the Word and God, Saving Wisdom, first born of all creatures, Angel of thy great counsel", refers at some length to the garden of Eden, Abel, Henoch, Abraham, Melchisedech, Job, and other saints of the Old Law. When he has said the words: "the numberless army of Angels … the Cherubim and six-winged Seraphim … together with thousands of thousand Archangels and myriad myriads of Angels unceasingly and without silence cry out", "all the people together say: 'Holy, holy, holy the Lord of Hosts, the heaven and earth are full of His glory, blessed forever, Amen.'" The bishop then again takes up the word and continues: "Thou art truly holy and all-holy, highest and most exalted for ever. And thine only-begotten Son, our Lord and God Jesus Christ, is holy …"; and so he comes to the words of Institution: "in the night in which He was betrayed, taking bread in His holy and blameless hands and looking up to Thee, His God and Father, and breaking He gave to His disciples saying: This is the Mystery of the New Testament; take of it, eat. This is My body, broken for many for the remission of sins. So also having mixed the cup of wine and water, and having blessed it, He gave to them saying: Drink you all of this. This is My blood shed for many for the remission of sins. Do this in memory of Me. For as often as you eat this bread and drink this cup, you announce My death until I come." <br />
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Then follow the Anamimnesis ("Remembering therefore His suffering and death and resurrection and return to heaven and His future second coming …"), the Epiklesis or invocation ("sending Thy Holy Spirit, the witness of the sufferings of the Lord Jesus to this sacrifice, that He may change this bread to the body of thy Christ and this cup to the blood of thy Christ …"), and a sort of litany (the great Intercession) for the Church, clergy, the Emperor, and for all sorts and conditions of men, which ends with a doxology, "and all the people say: Amen." In this litany is a curious petition (after that for the Emperor and the army) which joins the saints to living people for whom the bishop prays: "We also offer to thee for (‘upér) all thy holy and eternally well-pleasing patriarchs, prophets, just apostles, martyrs, confessors, bishops, priests, deacons, subdeacons, readers, singers, virgins, widows, laymen, and all those whose names thou knowest." After the Kiss of Peace (The peace of God be with you all) the deacon calls upon the people to pray for various causes which are nearly the same as those of the bishop's litany and the bishop gathers up their prayers in a collect. He then shows them the Holy Eucharist, saying: "Holy things for the holy" and they answer: "One is holy, one is Lord, Jesus Christ in the glory of God the Father, etc." The bishop gives the people Holy Communion in the form of bread, saying to each: "The body of Christ", and the communicant "answers Amen". The deacon follows with the chalice, saying: "The blood of Christ, chalice of life." R. "Amen." While they receive, the xxxiii Psalm (I will bless the Lord at all times) is said. After Communion the deacons take what is left of the Blessed Sacrament to the [[tabernacle]]s (''pastophória''). There follows a short thanksgiving, the bishop dismisses the people and the deacon ends by saying: "Go in peace." <br />
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Throughout this liturgy the compiler supposes that it was drawn up by the [[Apostles]] and he inserts sentences telling us which Apostle composed each separate part, for instance: "And I, James, brother of John the son of Zebedee, say that the deacon shall say at once: 'No one of the catechumens,'" etc. The second book of the Apostolic Constitutions contains the outline of a liturgy (hardly more than the rubrics) which practically coincides with this one. All the liturgies of the Antiochene class follow the same general arrangement as that of the Apostolic Constitutions. Gradually the preparation of the oblation ([[Prothesis]], the word also used for the credence table), before the actual liturgy begins, develops into an elaborate service. The preparation for the lessons (the little Entrance) and the carrying of the oblation from the Prothesis to the altar (the great Entrance) become solemn processions, but the outline of the liturgy: the Mass of the Catechumens and their dismissal; the litany; the Anaphora beginning with the words "Right and just" and interrupted by the Sanctus; the words of Institution; Anamimnesis, Epiklesis and Supplication for all kinds of people at that place; the Elevation with the words "Holy things to the holy"; the Communion distributed by the bishop and deacon (the deacon having the chalice); and then the final prayer and dismissal–this order is characteristic of all the Syrian and Palestinian uses, and is followed in the derived Byzantine liturgies. Two points in that of the Apostolic Constitutions should be noticed. No saints are mentioned by name and there is no [[Our Father]]. The mention of saints' names, especially of the "All-holy Mother of God", spread considerably among Catholics after the [[Third Ecumenical Council|Council of Ephesus]] (431), and prayers invoking her under that title were then added to all the Catholic liturgies. The Apostolic Constitutions have preserved an older form unchanged by the development that modifies forms in actual use. The omission of the Lord's Prayer is curious and unique. It has at any rate nothing to do with relative antiquity. In the "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles" (VIII, ii, 3) people are told to pray three times a day "as the Lord commanded in his Gospel: Our Father", etc.<br />
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==Liturgy of St. James==<br />
Of the Antiochene liturgies drawn up for actual use, the oldest one and the original from which the others have been derived is the Greek Liturgy of St. James. The earliest reference to it is Canon xxxii of the [[Quinisext Council|Quinisextum Council]] (II Trullan A. D. 692), which quotes it as being really composed by St. James, the brother of Our Lord. The Council appeals to this liturgy in defending the mixed chalice against the Armenians. St. [[Jerome]] (died 420) seems to have known it. At any rate at Bethlehem he quotes as a liturgical form the words "who alone is sinless", which occur in this Liturgy (Adv. Pel., II, xxiii). The fact that the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobites]] use the same liturgy in Syriac shows that it existed and was well established before the [[Monophysitism|Monophysite]] schism. The oldest manuscript is one of the tenth century formerly belonging to the Greek monastery at Messina and now kept in the University library of that city.<br />
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The Liturgy of St. James follows in all its essential parts that of the Apostolic Constitutions. It has preparatory prayers to be said by the priest and deacon and a blessing of the incense. Then begins the Mass of the Catechumens with the little Entrance. The deacon says a litany (''’ekténeia''), to each clause of which the people answer "Kyrie eleison". Meanwhile the priest is saying a prayer to himself, of which only the last words are said aloud, after the litany is finished. The singers say the [[Trisagion]], "Holy God, holy Strong One, holy Immortal One, have mercy on us." The practice of the priest saying one prayer silently while the people are occupied with something different is a later development. The Lessons follow, still in the older form, that is, long portions of both Testaments, then the prayers for the catechumens and their dismissal. Among the prayers for the catechumens occurs a reference to the cross (lift up the horn of the Christians by the power of the venerable and life-giving cross) which must have been written after St. [[Helen]] found it (c. 326) and which is one of the many reasons for connecting this liturgy with Jerusalem. When the catechumens are dismissed the deacon tells the faithful to "know each other", that is to observe whether any stranger is still present. The great Entrance which begins the Mass of the Faithful is already an imposing ceremony. The incense is blessed, the oblation is brought from the Prothesis to the altar while the people sing the Cherubikon, ending with three Alleluias. (The text is different from the Byzantine [[Cherubic Hymn|Cherubikon.) Meanwhile the priest says another prayer silently. The creed is then said; apparently at first it was a shorter form like the Apostles' Creed. The [[Offertory]] prayers and the litany are much longer than those in the Apostolic Constitutions. There is as yet no reference to an [[Iconostasis]] (screen dividing the choir or place of the clergy). The beginning of the "Anaphora" (Preface) is shorter. The words of Institution and Anamimnesis are followed immediately by the Epiklesis; then comes the Supplication for various people. The deacon reads the "[[Diptychs]]" of the names of the people for whom they pray; then follows a list of Saints beginning with "our all-holy, immaculate and highly praised Lady Mary, Mother of God and ever-virgin." Here are inserted two hymns to Our Lady obviously directed against the Nestorian heresy. The Lord's Prayer follows with an introduction and Embolismos. The Host is shown to the people with the same words as in the Apostolic Constitutions, and then broken, and part of it is put into the chalice while the priest says: "The mixing of the all-holy Body and the precious Blood of Our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ." Before Communion Psalm xxxiii is said. The priest says a prayer before his Communion. The deacon communicates the people. There is no such form as: "The Body of Christ"; he says only: "Approach in the fear of the Lord", and they answer "Blessed is He who comes in the name of the Lord." What is left of the Blessed Sacrament is taken by the deacon to the Prothesis; the prayers of thanksgiving are longer than those of the Apostolic Constitutions. <br />
<br />
The Liturgy of St. James as it now exists is a more developed form of the same use as that of the Apostolic Constitutions. The prayers are longer, the ceremonies have become more elaborate, incense is used continually, and the preparation is already on the way to become the complicated service of the Byzantine Prothesis. There are continual invocations of saints; but the essential outline of the Rite is the same. Besides the references to the Holy Cross, one allusion makes it clear that it was originally drawn lup for the Church of Jerusalem. The first supplication after the Epiklesis is: "We offer to thee, O Lord, for Thy holy places which Thou hast glorified by the divine appearance of Thy Christ and by the coming of Thy holy Spirit, especially for the holy and illustrious Sion, mother of all churches and for Thy holy Catholic and apostolic Church throughout the world." This liturgy was used throughout Syria and Palestine, that is throughout the Antiochene Patriarchate (Jerusalem was not made a patriarchal see till the [[Council of Ephesus]], 431) before the Nestorian and Monophysite schisms. It is possible to reconstruct a great part of the use of the city of Antioch while St. John Chrysostom was preaching there (370-397) from the allusions and quotations in his homilies (Probst, Liturgie des IV. Jahrh., II, i, v, 156, 198). It is then seen to be practically that of St. James: indeed whole passages are quoted word for word as they stand in St. James or in the Apostolic Constitutions.<br />
The Catechisms of St. [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] were held in 348; the first eighteen are addressed to the Competentes (''photizómenoi'') during Lent, the last six to the neophytes in Easter week. In these he explains, besides Baptism and Confirmation, the holy liturgy. The allusions to the liturgy are carefully veiled in the earlier ones because of the disciplina arcani; they became much plainer when he speaks to people just baptized, although even then he avoids quoting the baptism form or the words of consecration. From these Catechisms we learn the order of the liturgy at Jerusalem in the middle of the fourth century. Except for one or two unimportant variations, it is that of St. James (Probst, op. cit., II, i, ii, 77-106). This liturgy appears to have been used in either language, Greek at Antioch, Jerusalem, and the chief cities where Greek was commonly spoken, Syriac in the country. The oldest form of it now extant is the Greek version. Is it possible to find a relationship between it and other parent-uses? There are a number of very remarkable parallel passages between the Anaphora of this liturgy and the Canon of the Roman Mass. The order of the prayers is different, but when the Greek or Syriac is translated into Latin there appear a large number of phrases and clauses that are identical with ours. It has been suggested that Rome and Syria originally used the same liturgy and that the much-disputed question of the order of our Canon may be solved by reconstructing it according to the Syrian use (Drews, Zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Kanons). Mgr. Duchesne and most authors, on the other hand, are disposed to connect the Gallican Liturgy with that of Syria and the Roman Mass with the Alexandrine use (Duchesne, Origines du culte chrétien, 54).<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antiochene_Rite&oldid=194154594|''Antiochene Rite'' at Wikipedia]<br />
<br />
[[Category: Liturgics]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100028Church Music2011-04-16T12:32:32Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant|Constantinoplan Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpathian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
*[[Syrian chant]]<br />
*[[Coptic chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&diff=100027Byzantine Empire2011-04-16T12:30:44Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{cleanup}}<br />
<br />
'''Byzantine Empire''' (native Greek name: Βασιλεία τῶν Ρωμαίων - ''Basileia tōn Rōmaiōn'', latin: ''Imperium Romanum'') is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking [[Roman Empire]] of the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is also often referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. To its inhabitants the Empire was simply the Roman Empire and its emperors continued the unbroken succession of Roman emperors. During much of its history it was known to many of its Western contemporaries as ''The Empire of the Greeks'' due to the increasing dominance of its Greek population and distinct culture. Today most scholars acknowledge that the [[Byzantine]] Empire was the direct continuation of the [[Hellenistic|Hellenistic World]].<!-- The Oxford History of Byzantium, Britannica 2006. --><br />
<br />
There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of [[Diocletian]] (284–305) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a ''pars Orientis'' and a ''pars Occidentis''. Some consider [[Constantine I]] its founder. Others place it during the reign of [[Theodosius the Great (emperor)|Theodosius I]] (379–395) and Christendom's victory over pagan Roman religion, or, following his death in 395, with the division of the empire into western and eastern halves. Others place it yet further in 476, when the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was forced to abdicate, thus leaving sole imperial authority to the emperor in the Greek East. Others again point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of [[Heraclius]] (ca. 620) when Greek was made the official language. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of further [[Hellenization]] and increasing [[Christianization]] was already under way.<br />
<br />
===Religion===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine Empire had a major influence upon [[Orthodox Christianity]]. This was embodied in the Byzantine version of Christianity, which spread Orthodoxy and eventually led to the creation of the "[[Byzantine commonwealth]]" (a term coined by 20th-century historians) throughout Eastern Europe. Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, where it still is a predominant religion. Such modern-day countries are Bulgaria, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Russia, Serbia, Romania, and Ukraine; of course, it has also remained the official religion of the Greeks via the uninterrupted continuity of the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox Church]]. Less well known is the influence of the Byzantine religious sensibility on the millions of Christians in Ethiopia, the [[Coptic]] Christians of Egypt, and the Christians of Armenia, though they all belong to the [[Oriental Orthodox]] (as opposed to the Byzantine [[Eastern Orthodox]]) faith. <br />
<br />
Robert Byron, one of the first 20th century Philhellenes, argued that the greatness of [[Byzantium]] lay in what he described as "the Triple Fusion": that of a Roman body, a Greek mind and an oriental, mystical soul.<br />
<br />
===Art, architecture, and literature ===<br />
<br />
[[Byzantine Art]] and [[Byzantine Architecture]] were largely based around the Christian story and its heralds, and the importance of icons in Orthodox society. In terms of architecture, Byzantines emphasized the Dome, the arch and the Grecian cross lay out. It is evidenced today in countless examples of old Byzantine Churches with their traditional mosaics depicting Saints and figures from the Bible. Its impact was such that it spawned a [[Neo-Byzantine]] architectural revival in later years. Byzantine Art was also important in this respect, its impact on Orthodoxy can be witnessed across southeast Europe, Russia, the [[Holy Land]] and parts of the Middle East, but also in those areas of Turkey where it was allowed to survive.<br />
<br />
The finest Byzantine literary works were Hymns and devotionals.<!--, especially those of...--> The other area where the Byzantines excelled was in practical writing. While rarely works of genius, a series of competent, diligent writers, both male and female, produced many works of practical value in the fields of public administration, military affairs, and the practical sciences. The early theological work of the Byzantines was important in the development of western thought. Historiography influenced later Russian chroniclers. <br />
<br />
Most of the writing was in classical Greek. Vernacular literature developed much more slowly than in the west. There was little fiction, the best-known work being the epic poem Digenis Acritas, written in something approaching the vernacular. Much of the writing of the day was history, theology, biography, and hagiography. Many letters have survived, some work-a-day correspondence, a few minor masterpieces, as well as a few large encyclopedic works, such as the huge Suda. Perhaps the Byzantine empire's greatest contribution to literature was their careful preservation of the best works of the ancient world, as well as compilations of works on certain subjects, with certain revisions, most specifically in the fields of medicine and history.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Source===<br />
*[[w:Byzantine Empire|''Byzantine Empire'' on Wikipedia]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers 12 Byzantine Rulers: The History of The Byzantine Empire] (podcast) - "This history lecture podcast covers the little known Byzantine Empire through the study of twelve of its greatest rulers."<br />
*[http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Studies Page] - "Dumbarton Oaks is the main center in America for Byzantine studies."<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Places]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Empire&diff=100026Byzantine Empire2011-04-16T12:30:12Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{cleanup}}<br />
<br />
'''Byzantine Empire''' (native Greek name: Βασιλεία τῶν Ρωμαίων - ''Basileia tōn Rōmaiōn'', latin: Imperium Romanum) is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the Greek-speaking [[Roman Empire]] of the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it is also often referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. To its inhabitants the Empire was simply the Roman Empire and its emperors continued the unbroken succession of Roman emperors. During much of its history it was known to many of its Western contemporaries as ''The Empire of the Greeks'' due to the increasing dominance of its Greek population and distinct culture. Today most scholars acknowledge that the [[Byzantine]] Empire was the direct continuation of the [[Hellenistic|Hellenistic World]].<!-- The Oxford History of Byzantium, Britannica 2006. --><br />
<br />
There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of [[Diocletian]] (284–305) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a ''pars Orientis'' and a ''pars Occidentis''. Some consider [[Constantine I]] its founder. Others place it during the reign of [[Theodosius the Great (emperor)|Theodosius I]] (379–395) and Christendom's victory over pagan Roman religion, or, following his death in 395, with the division of the empire into western and eastern halves. Others place it yet further in 476, when the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was forced to abdicate, thus leaving sole imperial authority to the emperor in the Greek East. Others again point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of [[Heraclius]] (ca. 620) when Greek was made the official language. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of further [[Hellenization]] and increasing [[Christianization]] was already under way.<br />
<br />
===Religion===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine Empire had a major influence upon [[Orthodox Christianity]]. This was embodied in the Byzantine version of Christianity, which spread Orthodoxy and eventually led to the creation of the "[[Byzantine commonwealth]]" (a term coined by 20th-century historians) throughout Eastern Europe. Early Byzantine missionary work spread Orthodox Christianity to various Slavic peoples, where it still is a predominant religion. Such modern-day countries are Bulgaria, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Montenegro, Russia, Serbia, Romania, and Ukraine; of course, it has also remained the official religion of the Greeks via the uninterrupted continuity of the [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox Church]]. Less well known is the influence of the Byzantine religious sensibility on the millions of Christians in Ethiopia, the [[Coptic]] Christians of Egypt, and the Christians of Armenia, though they all belong to the [[Oriental Orthodox]] (as opposed to the Byzantine [[Eastern Orthodox]]) faith. <br />
<br />
Robert Byron, one of the first 20th century Philhellenes, argued that the greatness of [[Byzantium]] lay in what he described as "the Triple Fusion": that of a Roman body, a Greek mind and an oriental, mystical soul.<br />
<br />
===Art, architecture, and literature ===<br />
<br />
[[Byzantine Art]] and [[Byzantine Architecture]] were largely based around the Christian story and its heralds, and the importance of icons in Orthodox society. In terms of architecture, Byzantines emphasized the Dome, the arch and the Grecian cross lay out. It is evidenced today in countless examples of old Byzantine Churches with their traditional mosaics depicting Saints and figures from the Bible. Its impact was such that it spawned a [[Neo-Byzantine]] architectural revival in later years. Byzantine Art was also important in this respect, its impact on Orthodoxy can be witnessed across southeast Europe, Russia, the [[Holy Land]] and parts of the Middle East, but also in those areas of Turkey where it was allowed to survive.<br />
<br />
The finest Byzantine literary works were Hymns and devotionals.<!--, especially those of...--> The other area where the Byzantines excelled was in practical writing. While rarely works of genius, a series of competent, diligent writers, both male and female, produced many works of practical value in the fields of public administration, military affairs, and the practical sciences. The early theological work of the Byzantines was important in the development of western thought. Historiography influenced later Russian chroniclers. <br />
<br />
Most of the writing was in classical Greek. Vernacular literature developed much more slowly than in the west. There was little fiction, the best-known work being the epic poem Digenis Acritas, written in something approaching the vernacular. Much of the writing of the day was history, theology, biography, and hagiography. Many letters have survived, some work-a-day correspondence, a few minor masterpieces, as well as a few large encyclopedic works, such as the huge Suda. Perhaps the Byzantine empire's greatest contribution to literature was their careful preservation of the best works of the ancient world, as well as compilations of works on certain subjects, with certain revisions, most specifically in the fields of medicine and history.<br />
<br />
<br />
===Source===<br />
*[[w:Byzantine Empire|''Byzantine Empire'' on Wikipedia]]<br />
<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers 12 Byzantine Rulers: The History of The Byzantine Empire] (podcast) - "This history lecture podcast covers the little known Byzantine Empire through the study of twelve of its greatest rulers."<br />
*[http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Studies Page] - "Dumbarton Oaks is the main center in America for Byzantine studies."<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Places]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή Αυτοκρατορία]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100025Byzantine Chant2011-04-16T12:29:11Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Chant of Constantinople''', also known uder a name of '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100024Byzantine Chant2011-04-16T12:28:41Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Chant of Constantinople''', also known uder a name of '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the eastern [[Roman Empire|Byzantine Empire]] and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=100023Byzantine Chant2011-04-16T12:27:27Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Chant of Constantinople''', also known uder a name of Byzantine Chant is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of the Orthodox churches in the former lands of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire and many of their ecclesiastical offshoots beyond those areas. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use Byzantine Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]<br />
--[[User:Orthophil|Orthophil]] 12:27, April 16, 2011 (UTC)</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100022Church Music2011-04-16T12:26:27Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant|Constantinoplan Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpatho-Russian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
*[[Syrian chant]]<br />
*[[Coptic chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100021Church Music2011-04-16T12:26:07Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Constantinoplan Chant|Byzantine Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpatho-Russian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
*[[Syrian chant]]<br />
*[[Coptic chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=100020Church Music2011-04-16T12:24:24Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Constantinoplan Chant|Byzantine Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Beneventan chant]]<br />
*[[Carpatho-Russian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Bakhmetev Obikhod]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Greek Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Kievan Chant]]<br />
**[[Old Simonov Chant]]<br />
**[[Valaam Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=98714Gregorian Chant2011-03-12T09:18:15Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Rite|Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Liturgy and other ritual services. It is named after [[Gregory the Dialogist|Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St. Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=98713Byzantine Chant2011-03-12T09:16:43Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>Strictly speaking, '''Byzantine Chant''' was the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of Christian Churches under jurisdiction of Constantinople. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use [[Byzantine]] Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
<br />
The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
<br />
In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
<br />
===The scale===<br />
<br />
The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
<br />
The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
<br />
===The diatonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
<br />
===The enharmonic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
<br />
===The chromatic modes===<br />
<br />
These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
<br />
Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
<br />
The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
<br />
The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
<br />
It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
<br />
== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts]]<br />
[[Category:Church History]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music]]<br />
[[Category:Featured Articles]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]<br />
<br />
[[el:Βυζαντινή μουσική]]<br />
[[fr:Chant byzantin]]<br />
[[ro:Cântarea bizantină]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=98548Church Music2011-03-06T08:05:36Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Carpatho-Russian Chant]]<br />
*[[Celtic Chant]]<br />
*[[Galican Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Bakhmetev Obikhod]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Greek Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Kievan Chant]]<br />
**[[Old Simonov Chant]]<br />
**[[Valaam Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=97775Church Music2011-02-06T21:16:14Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Carpatho-Russian Chant]]<br />
*[[Galician Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
*[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
*[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Bakhmetev Obikhod]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Greek Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Kievan Chant]]<br />
**[[Old Simonov Chant]]<br />
**[[Valaam Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97767Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:22:53Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97766Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:22:28Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
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<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience in the [[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97765Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:21:42Z<p>Orthophil: /* Origins of the new tradition */</p>
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<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience in the [[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.<br />
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==History==<br />
Gregorian chant was organized, codified, and notated mainly in the [[Franks|Frankish]] lands of western and central Europe during the 10th to 13th centuries, with later additions and redactions, but the texts and many of the melodies have antecedents going back several centuries earlier. Although popular belief credited [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] with having personally invented Gregorian chant (in much the same way that a biblical prophet would transmit a divinely received message), scholars now believe that the chant bearing his name arose from a later [[Carolingian]] synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]], and that at that time the attribution to Gregory I was a "marketing ruse" to invest it with a sanctified pedigree, as part of an effort to create one liturgical protocol that would be practised throughout the entire [[Holy Roman Empire]].<br />
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===Organization===<br />
Gregorian chants are organized into eight [[musical mode|modes]] (scales). Typical melodic features include characteristic [[incipit]]s and [[cadence (music)|cadences]], the use of [[reciting tone]]s around which the other notes of the [[melody]] revolve, and a vocabulary of musical motifs woven together through a process called [[centonization]] to create families of related chants.<br />
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Although the modern eight-tone major and minor scales are strongly related to two of these [[church modes]] (the Ionian and Aeolian, respectively), they function according to different harmonic rules. The church modes are based on six-note patterns called [[hexachord]]s, the main notes of which are called the ''dominant'' and the ''final''. Depending on where the final falls in the sequence of the hexachord, the mode is characterized as either ''authentic'' or ''plagal''. Modes with the same final share certain characteristics, and it is easy to modulate back and forth between them; hence, the eight modes fall into four larger groupings based on their finals.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
The oldest manuscripts of Gregorian chants were written using a graphic notation which uses a repertoire of specific signs called [[neume]]s; each neume designates a basic musical gesture (see [[musical notation]]). As books, made of [[vellum]] (prepared sheepskins), were very expensive, the text was abbreviated wherever possible, with the neumes written over the text. This was a notation without lines and no exact melodic contour could be deciphered from it, which implies that the repertoire was learnt by rote.<br />
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===Singers===<br />
Gregorian chant was traditionally sung by [[choir]]s of men and boys in churches, or by [[monastics]] in their [[chapel]]s, and is commonly heard in celebrations of the [[Western Rite]]Liturgies. It is the music of the [[Roman Rite]], performed in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and the monastic [[Canonical hours|Office]].<br />
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===Development of earlier plainchant===<br />
Singing has been part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgy]] since the earliest days of the Church. Until the mid-1990s, it was widely accepted that the [[psalms|psalmody]] of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Jewish]] worship significantly influenced and contributed to [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] ritual and chant. This view is no longer generally accepted by scholars, due to analysis that shows that most early Christian hymns did not have Psalms for texts, and that the Psalms were not sung in [[synagogue]]s for centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Destruction of the Second Temple]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;70.<ref>David Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–5.</ref> However, early Christian rites did incorporate elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [[Canonical hours]] have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. "[[Amen]]" and "[[alleluia]]" come from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and the threefold "[[sanctus]]" derives from the threefold "kadosh" of the [[Kedusha]].<ref>Willi Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 34.</ref><br />
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The [[New Testament]] mentions singing hymns during the [[Last Supper]]: "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [[Mount of Olives]]" {{bibleverse||Matthew|26.30|NT}}. Other ancient witnesses such as [[Pope Clement I]], [[Tertullian]], [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], and [[Egeria (pilgrim)|Egeria]] confirm the practice,<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 74.</ref> although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–7 and James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 72.</ref> The 3rd-century Greek "[[Oxyrhynchus hymn]]" survived with musical notation, but the connection between this hymn and the plainchant tradition is uncertain.<ref>McKinnon, James W.: "Christian Church, music of the early", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 11&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/ (subscription access)]</ref><br />
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Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', attributed to the theologian [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], attests the singing of [[Hallel]] psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [[agape feast|''agape'' feasts]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 486.</ref> Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony]] introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [[antiphon]]al psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] introduced this practice to the West.<br />
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Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] described the [[responsory|responsorial]] singing of a [[Gradual]] psalm at Mass. At ca. 520, [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedictus of Nursia]] established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [[York]].<ref>James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 320.</ref> Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([[Celtic chant]]), Spain ([[Mozarabic chant|Mozarabic]]), Gaul ([[Gallican chant|Gallican]]), and Italy ([[Old Roman chant|Old Roman]], [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Beneventan chant|Beneventan]]). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year-round repertory of 5th-century plainchant after the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed.<br />
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===Origins of the new tradition===<br />
Scholars debate whether the essentials of the melodies originated in Rome, before the 7th century, or in [[Franks|Francia]], in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Traditionalists point to evidence supporting an important role for [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] between 590 and 604, such as that presented in Heinrich Bewerunge's article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.<ref>{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gregorian chant|Gregorian chant]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}, article by Heinrich Bewerunge.</ref> Scholarly consensus, supported by [[Willi Apel]] and Robert Snow, asserts instead that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]] commissioned by [[Carolingian]] rulers in France. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [[Pope Stephen II]] had celebrated [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] using Roman chant. According to [[Charlemagne]], his father [[Pippin the Younger|Pepin]] abolished the local [[Gallican rite]]s in favor of the Roman use, in order to strengthen ties with Rome.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 79.</ref> In 785–786, at Charlemagne's request, [[Pope Hadrian I]] sent a papal [[sacramentary]] with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. This Roman chant was subsequently modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and later adapted into the system of eight [[musical mode|modes]]. This Frankish-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, became known as "Gregorian." Originally the chant was probably so named to honor the contemporary [[Pope Gregory II]], but later lore attributed the authorship of chant to his more famous predecessor Gregory the Great. Gregory was portrayed dictating plainchant inspired by a dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]], giving Gregorian chant the stamp of holy authority. Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted as fact to this day.<br />
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===Dissemination and hegemony===<br />
Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [[Charlemagne]], once elevated to [[Holy Roman Emperor]], aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.<ref>David Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 10.</ref> From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 604.</ref> In 885, [[Pope Stephen V]] banned the [[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [[Poland]], [[Moravia]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Austria]].<br />
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The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 80.</ref> The Gregorian chant of the [[Sarum Rite]] displaced [[Celtic chant]]. Gregorian coexisted with [[Beneventan chant]] for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058). [[Mozarabic chant]] survived the influx of the [[Visigoths]] and [[Moors]], but not the Roman-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [[Reconquista]]. Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. [[Ambrosian chant]] alone survived to the present day, preserved in [[Milan]] due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]].<br />
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Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as [[Old Roman chant]]. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from the German Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [[Credo]] was added to the [[Roman Rite]] at the behest of the German emperor [[Henry II of Germany|Henry II]] in 1014.<ref>Richard Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 47.</ref> Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.<br />
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Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [[musical mode|modes]]. Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the ''[[Improperia]]'' of [[Good Friday]] are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.<ref>Carl Parrish, "A Treasury of Early Music" pp. 8–9</ref><br />
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===Early sources and later revisions===<br />
The first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [[Regensburg]] in Germany, [[Abbey of St. Gall|St. Gall]] in Switzerland, [[Laon]] and [[Abbey of St. Martial|St. Martial]] in France.<br />
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Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of St. Pierre, Solesmes, has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical "original" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [[musical mode|modes]]. In 1562–63, the [[Council of Trent]] banned most [[sequence (poetry)|sequences]]. Guidette's ''Directorium chori'', published in 1582, and the ''Editio medicea'', published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed "barbarism" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 288–289.</ref> In 1811, the French musicologist [[Alexandre-Étienne Choron]], as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [[French Revolution]], called for returning to the "purer" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 622.</ref><br />
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In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [[Prosper Gueranger]] revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([[Pustet]], Regensburg) which [[Pope Pius IX]] declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of [[St. Peter's Abbey, Solesmes|Solesmes]] released the first book in a planned series, the [[Paléographie Musicale]]. The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms. <br />
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The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duely published in [[facsimile]] editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] died. His successor, [[Pope Pius X]], promptly accepted the Solesmes chant — now compiled as the ''[[Liber usualis]]'' — as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] marks and note-lengthening ''episema'' and ''mora'' marks not found in the original sources. <br />
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Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices has placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 624–627.</ref> Ever since the restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the established performance tradition since the onset of the restoration is at odds with musicological evidence.<br />
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In his [[motu proprio]] ''[[Tra le sollecitudini]]'', Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], although he reserved the singing of the [[proper (liturgy)|Propers]] for males. While this custom is maintained in [[traditionalist Catholic]] communities, the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [[Vatican II]] officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html |title=The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council |publisher=Christusrex.org |date=1963-12-04 |accessdate=2011-01-03}}</ref><br />
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==Musical form==<br />
===Melodic types===<br />
Gregorian chant is, of course, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called "syllabic" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. "Neumatic" chants are more embellished and [[ligature (music)|ligature]]s, a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [[Melismatic]] chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismas.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 85–88.</ref><br />
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Gregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [[recitative]]s and free melodies.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 203</ref> The simplest kind of melody is the '''liturgical recitative'''. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the ''[[reciting tone]]''. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [[incipit]]s, partial [[cadence (music)|cadences]], and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [[Collect]] for [[Easter]] consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.<ref>Hoppin, ''Anthology of Medieval Music'' p. 11.</ref> Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [[Accentus Ecclesiasticus|accentus]] chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [[Epistle]], and [[Gospel]] during the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], and in the direct [[psalmody]] of the [[Canonical hours|Office]].{{listen|filename=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg|title=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day|description=example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Psalmodic chants''', which intone [[psalms]], include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include ''direct psalmody'', ''antiphonal chants'', and ''responsorial chants''.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 81.</ref> In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.<br />
[[Image:Evora06.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Missal with Gregorian chants]]<br />
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'''Antiphonal chants''' such as the [[Introit]], and [[Communion (chant)|Communion]] originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an ''[[antiphon]]''. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [[Doxology]], or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo|Gloria]], are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.{{listen|filename=Loquetur Dominus.ogg|title=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time|description=example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Responsorial chants''' such as the [[Gradual]], [[Alleluia]], [[Offertory]], and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a ''respond'' sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [[Responsory|Responsorial]] chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called ''[[centonization]]''. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized. {{listen|filename=De profundis.ogg|title=''De profundis'', Tract for the Requiem Mass|description=example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of sanctified bread and wine. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 123.</ref><br />
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The non-psalmodic chants, including the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], [[Sequence (poetry)|sequences]], and [[hymn]]s, were originally intended for congregational singing.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 131.</ref> The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.<br />
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===Modality===<br />
{{Main|Musical mode}}<br />
Early plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [[diatonic scale]]. Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [[Musica enchiriadis|Enchiriadis]] group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F#, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b-flat was first described by Hucbald, who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.<br />
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Around 1025, [[Guido d'Arezzo]] revolutionized Western music with the development of the ''gamut'', in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [[hexachord]]s. Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C-D-E^F-G-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B-flat, F-G-A^Bb-C-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B-natural, G-A-B^C-D-E). The B-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [[accidental (music)|accidental]]. The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [[musica ficta]].<br />
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Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [[musical mode|modes]], influenced by the eightfold division of Byzantine chants called the ''[[oktoechos]]''.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 11.</ref> Each mode is distinguished by its ''final'', ''dominant'', and ''ambitus''. The ''final'' is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The ''dominant'' is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [[reciting tone]] in the melody. ''[[Ambitus (music)|Ambitus]]'' refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as ''plagal'', while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as ''authentic''. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 64–5.</ref> The existent pseudo-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix "Hypo-" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.<br />
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:Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [[Dorian mode|Dorian]] and [[Hypodorian mode|Hypodorian]].<br />
:Modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] and [[Hypophrygian mode|Hypophrygian]].<br />
:Modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [[Lydian mode|Lydian]] and [[Hypolydian mode|Hypolydian]].<br />
:Modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [[Mixolydian mode|Mixolydian]] and [[Hypomixolydian mode|Hypomixolydian]].<br />
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Although the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]], [[Locrian mode|Locrian]], and [[Ionian mode|Ionian]], these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [[Transposition (music)|transpositions]] of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.<br />
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Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the [[psalm tone]]s between antiphons and psalm verses.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 82.</ref><br />
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Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants — especially from German sources — whose [[neume]]s suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 22.</ref> Early Gregorian chant, like [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Old Roman chant]], whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 166–78, and Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 454.</ref> The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th-century [[Cistercian]] reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismas trimmed, B-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 608–10.</ref> Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants — notably Communions — defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion ''Circuibo'' was transcribed using a different mode in each.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 171–2.</ref><br />
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===Musical idiom===<br />
Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [[steps and skips|stepwise]]. Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as [[Ambrosian chant]] or [[Beneventan chant]]. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D-F-G-A-C.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 256–7.</ref> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F-A-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 21.</ref> Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [[Offertory|Offertories]]; in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Agnus Dei]]; and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]], and the [[Credo]].<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 258–9.</ref><br />
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Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [[centonization|centonized]] to create [[Gradual]]s and [[Tract (liturgy)|Tracts]] follow a musical "grammar" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the ''[[Iustus ut palma]]'' family of Graduals.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 344–63.</ref> Several [[Introit]]s in mode 3, including ''Loquetur Dominus'' above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 110–113.</ref> Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
{{Main|Neume}}<br />
[[Image:Neume2.jpg|thumb|270px|right| Offertory ''Iubilate deo universa terra'' in unheightened [[neume]]s.]]<br />
The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written ca. 950) used symbols called ''[[neume]]s'' (Gr. sign (of the hand) to indicate tone-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.<br />
Scholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [[cheironomy|cheironomic]] hand-gestures, the [[ekphonetic]] notation of [[Byzantine chant]], punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.<ref>Levy, Kenneth: "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 20&nbsp;January&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.40099.2.3#music.40099.2.3 (subscription access)]</ref> Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [[Saint Martial|St. Martial de Limoges]], in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the ''custos'', placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter "t" to indicate a [[tenuto]]. Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [[Shaker music]] is notated.<br />
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[[Image:gregorian chant.gif|frame|270px|right|The ''Liber usualis'' uses square notation, as in this excerpt from the ''Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)''.]]By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in ''square notation'' on a four-line staff with a clef, as in the ''Graduale Aboense'' pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of [[Dom. E. Cardine]] (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.<br />
B-flat is indicated by a "b-mollum" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the "Kyrie" to the right. When necessary, a "b-durum" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B-natural and serves to cancel the b-mollum . This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97764Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:19:29Z<p>Orthophil: /* Notation */</p>
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<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience in the [[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.<br />
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==History==<br />
Gregorian chant was organized, codified, and notated mainly in the [[Franks|Frankish]] lands of western and central Europe during the 10th to 13th centuries, with later additions and redactions, but the texts and many of the melodies have antecedents going back several centuries earlier. Although popular belief credited [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] with having personally invented Gregorian chant (in much the same way that a biblical prophet would transmit a divinely received message), scholars now believe that the chant bearing his name arose from a later [[Carolingian]] synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]], and that at that time the attribution to Gregory I was a "marketing ruse" to invest it with a sanctified pedigree, as part of an effort to create one liturgical protocol that would be practised throughout the entire [[Holy Roman Empire]].<br />
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===Organization===<br />
Gregorian chants are organized into eight [[musical mode|modes]] (scales). Typical melodic features include characteristic [[incipit]]s and [[cadence (music)|cadences]], the use of [[reciting tone]]s around which the other notes of the [[melody]] revolve, and a vocabulary of musical motifs woven together through a process called [[centonization]] to create families of related chants.<br />
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Although the modern eight-tone major and minor scales are strongly related to two of these [[church modes]] (the Ionian and Aeolian, respectively), they function according to different harmonic rules. The church modes are based on six-note patterns called [[hexachord]]s, the main notes of which are called the ''dominant'' and the ''final''. Depending on where the final falls in the sequence of the hexachord, the mode is characterized as either ''authentic'' or ''plagal''. Modes with the same final share certain characteristics, and it is easy to modulate back and forth between them; hence, the eight modes fall into four larger groupings based on their finals.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
The oldest manuscripts of Gregorian chants were written using a graphic notation which uses a repertoire of specific signs called [[neume]]s; each neume designates a basic musical gesture (see [[musical notation]]). As books, made of [[vellum]] (prepared sheepskins), were very expensive, the text was abbreviated wherever possible, with the neumes written over the text. This was a notation without lines and no exact melodic contour could be deciphered from it, which implies that the repertoire was learnt by rote.<br />
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===Singers===<br />
Gregorian chant was traditionally sung by [[choir]]s of men and boys in churches, or by [[monastics]] in their [[chapel]]s, and is commonly heard in celebrations of the [[Western Rite]]Liturgies. It is the music of the [[Roman Rite]], performed in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and the monastic [[Canonical hours|Office]].<br />
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===Development of earlier plainchant===<br />
Singing has been part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgy]] since the earliest days of the Church. Until the mid-1990s, it was widely accepted that the [[psalms|psalmody]] of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Jewish]] worship significantly influenced and contributed to [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] ritual and chant. This view is no longer generally accepted by scholars, due to analysis that shows that most early Christian hymns did not have Psalms for texts, and that the Psalms were not sung in [[synagogue]]s for centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Destruction of the Second Temple]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;70.<ref>David Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–5.</ref> However, early Christian rites did incorporate elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [[Canonical hours]] have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. "[[Amen]]" and "[[alleluia]]" come from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and the threefold "[[sanctus]]" derives from the threefold "kadosh" of the [[Kedusha]].<ref>Willi Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 34.</ref><br />
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The [[New Testament]] mentions singing hymns during the [[Last Supper]]: "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [[Mount of Olives]]" {{bibleverse||Matthew|26.30|NT}}. Other ancient witnesses such as [[Pope Clement I]], [[Tertullian]], [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], and [[Egeria (pilgrim)|Egeria]] confirm the practice,<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 74.</ref> although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–7 and James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 72.</ref> The 3rd-century Greek "[[Oxyrhynchus hymn]]" survived with musical notation, but the connection between this hymn and the plainchant tradition is uncertain.<ref>McKinnon, James W.: "Christian Church, music of the early", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 11&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/ (subscription access)]</ref><br />
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Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', attributed to the theologian [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], attests the singing of [[Hallel]] psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [[agape feast|''agape'' feasts]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 486.</ref> Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony]] introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [[antiphon]]al psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] introduced this practice to the West.<br />
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Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] described the [[responsory|responsorial]] singing of a [[Gradual]] psalm at Mass. At ca. 520, [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedictus of Nursia]] established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [[York]].<ref>James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 320.</ref> Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([[Celtic chant]]), Spain ([[Mozarabic chant|Mozarabic]]), Gaul ([[Gallican chant|Gallican]]), and Italy ([[Old Roman chant|Old Roman]], [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Beneventan chant|Beneventan]]). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year-round repertory of 5th-century plainchant after the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed.<br />
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===Origins of the new tradition===<br />
[[Image:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|right| A dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]] sitting on [[Pope Gregory I]]'s shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration]]The Gregorian repertory was systematized for use in the [[Roman Rite]]. According to [[James McKinnon]], the core liturgy of the Roman Mass was compiled over a brief period in the 8th century in a project overseen by [[Chrodegang]] of [[Metz]]. Other scholars, including Andreas Pfisterer and Peter Jeffery, have argued for an earlier origin for the oldest layers of the repertory.<br />
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Scholars debate whether the essentials of the melodies originated in Rome, before the 7th century, or in [[Franks|Francia]], in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Traditionalists point to evidence supporting an important role for [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] between 590 and 604, such as that presented in Heinrich Bewerunge's article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.<ref>{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gregorian chant|Gregorian chant]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}, article by Heinrich Bewerunge.</ref> Scholarly consensus, supported by [[Willi Apel]] and Robert Snow, asserts instead that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]] commissioned by [[Carolingian]] rulers in France. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [[Pope Stephen II]] had celebrated [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] using Roman chant. According to [[Charlemagne]], his father [[Pippin the Younger|Pepin]] abolished the local [[Gallican rite]]s in favor of the Roman use, in order to strengthen ties with Rome.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 79.</ref> In 785–786, at Charlemagne's request, [[Pope Hadrian I]] sent a papal [[sacramentary]] with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. This Roman chant was subsequently modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and later adapted into the system of eight [[musical mode|modes]]. This Frankish-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, became known as "Gregorian." Originally the chant was probably so named to honor the contemporary [[Pope Gregory II]],<ref>McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 114.</ref> but later lore attributed the authorship of chant to his more famous predecessor Gregory the Great. Gregory was portrayed dictating plainchant inspired by a dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]], giving Gregorian chant the stamp of holy authority. Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted as fact to this day.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 13.</ref><br />
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===Dissemination and hegemony===<br />
Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [[Charlemagne]], once elevated to [[Holy Roman Emperor]], aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.<ref>David Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 10.</ref> From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 604.</ref> In 885, [[Pope Stephen V]] banned the [[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [[Poland]], [[Moravia]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Austria]].<br />
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The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 80.</ref> The Gregorian chant of the [[Sarum Rite]] displaced [[Celtic chant]]. Gregorian coexisted with [[Beneventan chant]] for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058). [[Mozarabic chant]] survived the influx of the [[Visigoths]] and [[Moors]], but not the Roman-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [[Reconquista]]. Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. [[Ambrosian chant]] alone survived to the present day, preserved in [[Milan]] due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]].<br />
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Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as [[Old Roman chant]]. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from the German Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [[Credo]] was added to the [[Roman Rite]] at the behest of the German emperor [[Henry II of Germany|Henry II]] in 1014.<ref>Richard Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 47.</ref> Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.<br />
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Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [[musical mode|modes]]. Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the ''[[Improperia]]'' of [[Good Friday]] are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.<ref>Carl Parrish, "A Treasury of Early Music" pp. 8–9</ref><br />
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===Early sources and later revisions===<br />
The first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [[Regensburg]] in Germany, [[Abbey of St. Gall|St. Gall]] in Switzerland, [[Laon]] and [[Abbey of St. Martial|St. Martial]] in France.<br />
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Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of St. Pierre, Solesmes, has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical "original" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [[musical mode|modes]]. In 1562–63, the [[Council of Trent]] banned most [[sequence (poetry)|sequences]]. Guidette's ''Directorium chori'', published in 1582, and the ''Editio medicea'', published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed "barbarism" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 288–289.</ref> In 1811, the French musicologist [[Alexandre-Étienne Choron]], as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [[French Revolution]], called for returning to the "purer" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 622.</ref><br />
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In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [[Prosper Gueranger]] revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([[Pustet]], Regensburg) which [[Pope Pius IX]] declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of [[St. Peter's Abbey, Solesmes|Solesmes]] released the first book in a planned series, the [[Paléographie Musicale]]. The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms. <br />
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The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duely published in [[facsimile]] editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] died. His successor, [[Pope Pius X]], promptly accepted the Solesmes chant — now compiled as the ''[[Liber usualis]]'' — as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] marks and note-lengthening ''episema'' and ''mora'' marks not found in the original sources. <br />
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Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices has placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 624–627.</ref> Ever since the restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the established performance tradition since the onset of the restoration is at odds with musicological evidence.<br />
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In his [[motu proprio]] ''[[Tra le sollecitudini]]'', Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], although he reserved the singing of the [[proper (liturgy)|Propers]] for males. While this custom is maintained in [[traditionalist Catholic]] communities, the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [[Vatican II]] officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html |title=The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council |publisher=Christusrex.org |date=1963-12-04 |accessdate=2011-01-03}}</ref><br />
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==Musical form==<br />
===Melodic types===<br />
Gregorian chant is, of course, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called "syllabic" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. "Neumatic" chants are more embellished and [[ligature (music)|ligature]]s, a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [[Melismatic]] chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismas.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 85–88.</ref><br />
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Gregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [[recitative]]s and free melodies.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 203</ref> The simplest kind of melody is the '''liturgical recitative'''. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the ''[[reciting tone]]''. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [[incipit]]s, partial [[cadence (music)|cadences]], and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [[Collect]] for [[Easter]] consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.<ref>Hoppin, ''Anthology of Medieval Music'' p. 11.</ref> Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [[Accentus Ecclesiasticus|accentus]] chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [[Epistle]], and [[Gospel]] during the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], and in the direct [[psalmody]] of the [[Canonical hours|Office]].{{listen|filename=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg|title=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day|description=example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Psalmodic chants''', which intone [[psalms]], include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include ''direct psalmody'', ''antiphonal chants'', and ''responsorial chants''.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 81.</ref> In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.<br />
[[Image:Evora06.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Missal with Gregorian chants]]<br />
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'''Antiphonal chants''' such as the [[Introit]], and [[Communion (chant)|Communion]] originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an ''[[antiphon]]''. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [[Doxology]], or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo|Gloria]], are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.{{listen|filename=Loquetur Dominus.ogg|title=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time|description=example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Responsorial chants''' such as the [[Gradual]], [[Alleluia]], [[Offertory]], and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a ''respond'' sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [[Responsory|Responsorial]] chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called ''[[centonization]]''. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized. {{listen|filename=De profundis.ogg|title=''De profundis'', Tract for the Requiem Mass|description=example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of sanctified bread and wine. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 123.</ref><br />
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The non-psalmodic chants, including the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], [[Sequence (poetry)|sequences]], and [[hymn]]s, were originally intended for congregational singing.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 131.</ref> The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.<br />
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===Modality===<br />
{{Main|Musical mode}}<br />
Early plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [[diatonic scale]]. Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [[Musica enchiriadis|Enchiriadis]] group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F#, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b-flat was first described by Hucbald, who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.<br />
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Around 1025, [[Guido d'Arezzo]] revolutionized Western music with the development of the ''gamut'', in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [[hexachord]]s. Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C-D-E^F-G-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B-flat, F-G-A^Bb-C-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B-natural, G-A-B^C-D-E). The B-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [[accidental (music)|accidental]]. The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [[musica ficta]].<br />
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Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [[musical mode|modes]], influenced by the eightfold division of Byzantine chants called the ''[[oktoechos]]''.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 11.</ref> Each mode is distinguished by its ''final'', ''dominant'', and ''ambitus''. The ''final'' is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The ''dominant'' is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [[reciting tone]] in the melody. ''[[Ambitus (music)|Ambitus]]'' refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as ''plagal'', while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as ''authentic''. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 64–5.</ref> The existent pseudo-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix "Hypo-" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.<br />
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:Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [[Dorian mode|Dorian]] and [[Hypodorian mode|Hypodorian]].<br />
:Modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] and [[Hypophrygian mode|Hypophrygian]].<br />
:Modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [[Lydian mode|Lydian]] and [[Hypolydian mode|Hypolydian]].<br />
:Modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [[Mixolydian mode|Mixolydian]] and [[Hypomixolydian mode|Hypomixolydian]].<br />
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Although the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]], [[Locrian mode|Locrian]], and [[Ionian mode|Ionian]], these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [[Transposition (music)|transpositions]] of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.<br />
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Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the [[psalm tone]]s between antiphons and psalm verses.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 82.</ref><br />
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Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants — especially from German sources — whose [[neume]]s suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 22.</ref> Early Gregorian chant, like [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Old Roman chant]], whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 166–78, and Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 454.</ref> The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th-century [[Cistercian]] reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismas trimmed, B-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 608–10.</ref> Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants — notably Communions — defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion ''Circuibo'' was transcribed using a different mode in each.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 171–2.</ref><br />
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===Musical idiom===<br />
Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [[steps and skips|stepwise]]. Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as [[Ambrosian chant]] or [[Beneventan chant]]. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D-F-G-A-C.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 256–7.</ref> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F-A-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 21.</ref> Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [[Offertory|Offertories]]; in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Agnus Dei]]; and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]], and the [[Credo]].<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 258–9.</ref><br />
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Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [[centonization|centonized]] to create [[Gradual]]s and [[Tract (liturgy)|Tracts]] follow a musical "grammar" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the ''[[Iustus ut palma]]'' family of Graduals.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 344–63.</ref> Several [[Introit]]s in mode 3, including ''Loquetur Dominus'' above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 110–113.</ref> Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
{{Main|Neume}}<br />
[[Image:Neume2.jpg|thumb|270px|right| Offertory ''Iubilate deo universa terra'' in unheightened [[neume]]s.]]<br />
The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written ca. 950) used symbols called ''[[neume]]s'' (Gr. sign (of the hand) to indicate tone-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.<br />
Scholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [[cheironomy|cheironomic]] hand-gestures, the [[ekphonetic]] notation of [[Byzantine chant]], punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.<ref>Levy, Kenneth: "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 20&nbsp;January&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.40099.2.3#music.40099.2.3 (subscription access)]</ref> Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [[Saint Martial|St. Martial de Limoges]], in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the ''custos'', placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter "t" to indicate a [[tenuto]]. Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [[Shaker music]] is notated.<br />
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[[Image:gregorian chant.gif|frame|270px|right|The ''Liber usualis'' uses square notation, as in this excerpt from the ''Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)''.]]By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in ''square notation'' on a four-line staff with a clef, as in the ''Graduale Aboense'' pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of [[Dom. E. Cardine]] (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.<br />
B-flat is indicated by a "b-mollum" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the "Kyrie" to the right. When necessary, a "b-durum" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B-natural and serves to cancel the b-mollum . This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97763Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:18:40Z<p>Orthophil: /* Singers */</p>
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<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience in the [[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.<br />
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==History==<br />
Gregorian chant was organized, codified, and notated mainly in the [[Franks|Frankish]] lands of western and central Europe during the 10th to 13th centuries, with later additions and redactions, but the texts and many of the melodies have antecedents going back several centuries earlier. Although popular belief credited [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] with having personally invented Gregorian chant (in much the same way that a biblical prophet would transmit a divinely received message), scholars now believe that the chant bearing his name arose from a later [[Carolingian]] synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]], and that at that time the attribution to Gregory I was a "marketing ruse" to invest it with a sanctified pedigree, as part of an effort to create one liturgical protocol that would be practised throughout the entire [[Holy Roman Empire]].<br />
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===Organization===<br />
Gregorian chants are organized into eight [[musical mode|modes]] (scales). Typical melodic features include characteristic [[incipit]]s and [[cadence (music)|cadences]], the use of [[reciting tone]]s around which the other notes of the [[melody]] revolve, and a vocabulary of musical motifs woven together through a process called [[centonization]] to create families of related chants.<br />
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Although the modern eight-tone major and minor scales are strongly related to two of these [[church modes]] (the Ionian and Aeolian, respectively), they function according to different harmonic rules. The church modes are based on six-note patterns called [[hexachord]]s, the main notes of which are called the ''dominant'' and the ''final''. Depending on where the final falls in the sequence of the hexachord, the mode is characterized as either ''authentic'' or ''plagal''. Modes with the same final share certain characteristics, and it is easy to modulate back and forth between them; hence, the eight modes fall into four larger groupings based on their finals.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
The oldest manuscripts of Gregorian chants were written using a graphic notation which uses a repertoire of specific signs called [[neume]]s; each neume designates a basic musical gesture (see [[musical notation]]). As books, made of [[vellum]] (prepared sheepskins), were very expensive, the text was abbreviated wherever possible, with the neumes written over the text. This was a notation without lines and no exact melodic contour could be deciphered from it, which implies that the repertoire was learnt by rote. In later stadia, the neumes are written onto staves of one or more lines; by the 11th century this had evolved into square notation, from which eventually the modern [[staff (music)|five-line staff]] developed in the 16th century.<ref>Development of notation styles is discussed at [http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory2.htm Dolmetsch online], accessed 4&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006</ref> As the dominating musical tradition throughout Europe, Gregorian chant became the root of all subsequent musical developments in Western music, beginning with the rise of [[polyphony]] in the 11th century.<br />
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===Singers===<br />
Gregorian chant was traditionally sung by [[choir]]s of men and boys in churches, or by [[monastics]] in their [[chapel]]s, and is commonly heard in celebrations of the [[Western Rite]]Liturgies. It is the music of the [[Roman Rite]], performed in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and the monastic [[Canonical hours|Office]].<br />
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===Development of earlier plainchant===<br />
Singing has been part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgy]] since the earliest days of the Church. Until the mid-1990s, it was widely accepted that the [[psalms|psalmody]] of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Jewish]] worship significantly influenced and contributed to [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] ritual and chant. This view is no longer generally accepted by scholars, due to analysis that shows that most early Christian hymns did not have Psalms for texts, and that the Psalms were not sung in [[synagogue]]s for centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Destruction of the Second Temple]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;70.<ref>David Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–5.</ref> However, early Christian rites did incorporate elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [[Canonical hours]] have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. "[[Amen]]" and "[[alleluia]]" come from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and the threefold "[[sanctus]]" derives from the threefold "kadosh" of the [[Kedusha]].<ref>Willi Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 34.</ref><br />
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The [[New Testament]] mentions singing hymns during the [[Last Supper]]: "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [[Mount of Olives]]" {{bibleverse||Matthew|26.30|NT}}. Other ancient witnesses such as [[Pope Clement I]], [[Tertullian]], [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], and [[Egeria (pilgrim)|Egeria]] confirm the practice,<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 74.</ref> although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–7 and James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 72.</ref> The 3rd-century Greek "[[Oxyrhynchus hymn]]" survived with musical notation, but the connection between this hymn and the plainchant tradition is uncertain.<ref>McKinnon, James W.: "Christian Church, music of the early", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 11&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/ (subscription access)]</ref><br />
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Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', attributed to the theologian [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], attests the singing of [[Hallel]] psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [[agape feast|''agape'' feasts]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 486.</ref> Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony]] introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [[antiphon]]al psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] introduced this practice to the West.<br />
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Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] described the [[responsory|responsorial]] singing of a [[Gradual]] psalm at Mass. At ca. 520, [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedictus of Nursia]] established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [[York]].<ref>James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 320.</ref> Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([[Celtic chant]]), Spain ([[Mozarabic chant|Mozarabic]]), Gaul ([[Gallican chant|Gallican]]), and Italy ([[Old Roman chant|Old Roman]], [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Beneventan chant|Beneventan]]). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year-round repertory of 5th-century plainchant after the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed.<br />
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===Origins of the new tradition===<br />
[[Image:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|right| A dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]] sitting on [[Pope Gregory I]]'s shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration]]The Gregorian repertory was systematized for use in the [[Roman Rite]]. According to [[James McKinnon]], the core liturgy of the Roman Mass was compiled over a brief period in the 8th century in a project overseen by [[Chrodegang]] of [[Metz]]. Other scholars, including Andreas Pfisterer and Peter Jeffery, have argued for an earlier origin for the oldest layers of the repertory.<br />
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Scholars debate whether the essentials of the melodies originated in Rome, before the 7th century, or in [[Franks|Francia]], in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Traditionalists point to evidence supporting an important role for [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] between 590 and 604, such as that presented in Heinrich Bewerunge's article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.<ref>{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gregorian chant|Gregorian chant]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}, article by Heinrich Bewerunge.</ref> Scholarly consensus, supported by [[Willi Apel]] and Robert Snow, asserts instead that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]] commissioned by [[Carolingian]] rulers in France. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [[Pope Stephen II]] had celebrated [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] using Roman chant. According to [[Charlemagne]], his father [[Pippin the Younger|Pepin]] abolished the local [[Gallican rite]]s in favor of the Roman use, in order to strengthen ties with Rome.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 79.</ref> In 785–786, at Charlemagne's request, [[Pope Hadrian I]] sent a papal [[sacramentary]] with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. This Roman chant was subsequently modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and later adapted into the system of eight [[musical mode|modes]]. This Frankish-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, became known as "Gregorian." Originally the chant was probably so named to honor the contemporary [[Pope Gregory II]],<ref>McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 114.</ref> but later lore attributed the authorship of chant to his more famous predecessor Gregory the Great. Gregory was portrayed dictating plainchant inspired by a dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]], giving Gregorian chant the stamp of holy authority. Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted as fact to this day.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 13.</ref><br />
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===Dissemination and hegemony===<br />
Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [[Charlemagne]], once elevated to [[Holy Roman Emperor]], aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.<ref>David Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 10.</ref> From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 604.</ref> In 885, [[Pope Stephen V]] banned the [[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [[Poland]], [[Moravia]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Austria]].<br />
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The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 80.</ref> The Gregorian chant of the [[Sarum Rite]] displaced [[Celtic chant]]. Gregorian coexisted with [[Beneventan chant]] for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058). [[Mozarabic chant]] survived the influx of the [[Visigoths]] and [[Moors]], but not the Roman-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [[Reconquista]]. Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. [[Ambrosian chant]] alone survived to the present day, preserved in [[Milan]] due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]].<br />
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Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as [[Old Roman chant]]. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from the German Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [[Credo]] was added to the [[Roman Rite]] at the behest of the German emperor [[Henry II of Germany|Henry II]] in 1014.<ref>Richard Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 47.</ref> Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.<br />
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Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [[musical mode|modes]]. Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the ''[[Improperia]]'' of [[Good Friday]] are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.<ref>Carl Parrish, "A Treasury of Early Music" pp. 8–9</ref><br />
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===Early sources and later revisions===<br />
The first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [[Regensburg]] in Germany, [[Abbey of St. Gall|St. Gall]] in Switzerland, [[Laon]] and [[Abbey of St. Martial|St. Martial]] in France.<br />
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Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of St. Pierre, Solesmes, has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical "original" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [[musical mode|modes]]. In 1562–63, the [[Council of Trent]] banned most [[sequence (poetry)|sequences]]. Guidette's ''Directorium chori'', published in 1582, and the ''Editio medicea'', published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed "barbarism" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 288–289.</ref> In 1811, the French musicologist [[Alexandre-Étienne Choron]], as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [[French Revolution]], called for returning to the "purer" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 622.</ref><br />
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In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [[Prosper Gueranger]] revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([[Pustet]], Regensburg) which [[Pope Pius IX]] declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of [[St. Peter's Abbey, Solesmes|Solesmes]] released the first book in a planned series, the [[Paléographie Musicale]]. The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms. <br />
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The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duely published in [[facsimile]] editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] died. His successor, [[Pope Pius X]], promptly accepted the Solesmes chant — now compiled as the ''[[Liber usualis]]'' — as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] marks and note-lengthening ''episema'' and ''mora'' marks not found in the original sources. <br />
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Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices has placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 624–627.</ref> Ever since the restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the established performance tradition since the onset of the restoration is at odds with musicological evidence.<br />
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In his [[motu proprio]] ''[[Tra le sollecitudini]]'', Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], although he reserved the singing of the [[proper (liturgy)|Propers]] for males. While this custom is maintained in [[traditionalist Catholic]] communities, the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [[Vatican II]] officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html |title=The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council |publisher=Christusrex.org |date=1963-12-04 |accessdate=2011-01-03}}</ref><br />
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==Musical form==<br />
===Melodic types===<br />
Gregorian chant is, of course, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called "syllabic" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. "Neumatic" chants are more embellished and [[ligature (music)|ligature]]s, a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [[Melismatic]] chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismas.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 85–88.</ref><br />
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Gregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [[recitative]]s and free melodies.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 203</ref> The simplest kind of melody is the '''liturgical recitative'''. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the ''[[reciting tone]]''. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [[incipit]]s, partial [[cadence (music)|cadences]], and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [[Collect]] for [[Easter]] consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.<ref>Hoppin, ''Anthology of Medieval Music'' p. 11.</ref> Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [[Accentus Ecclesiasticus|accentus]] chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [[Epistle]], and [[Gospel]] during the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], and in the direct [[psalmody]] of the [[Canonical hours|Office]].{{listen|filename=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg|title=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day|description=example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Psalmodic chants''', which intone [[psalms]], include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include ''direct psalmody'', ''antiphonal chants'', and ''responsorial chants''.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 81.</ref> In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.<br />
[[Image:Evora06.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Missal with Gregorian chants]]<br />
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'''Antiphonal chants''' such as the [[Introit]], and [[Communion (chant)|Communion]] originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an ''[[antiphon]]''. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [[Doxology]], or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo|Gloria]], are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.{{listen|filename=Loquetur Dominus.ogg|title=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time|description=example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Responsorial chants''' such as the [[Gradual]], [[Alleluia]], [[Offertory]], and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a ''respond'' sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [[Responsory|Responsorial]] chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called ''[[centonization]]''. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized. {{listen|filename=De profundis.ogg|title=''De profundis'', Tract for the Requiem Mass|description=example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of sanctified bread and wine. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 123.</ref><br />
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The non-psalmodic chants, including the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], [[Sequence (poetry)|sequences]], and [[hymn]]s, were originally intended for congregational singing.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 131.</ref> The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.<br />
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===Modality===<br />
{{Main|Musical mode}}<br />
Early plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [[diatonic scale]]. Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [[Musica enchiriadis|Enchiriadis]] group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F#, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b-flat was first described by Hucbald, who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.<br />
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Around 1025, [[Guido d'Arezzo]] revolutionized Western music with the development of the ''gamut'', in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [[hexachord]]s. Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C-D-E^F-G-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B-flat, F-G-A^Bb-C-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B-natural, G-A-B^C-D-E). The B-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [[accidental (music)|accidental]]. The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [[musica ficta]].<br />
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Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [[musical mode|modes]], influenced by the eightfold division of Byzantine chants called the ''[[oktoechos]]''.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 11.</ref> Each mode is distinguished by its ''final'', ''dominant'', and ''ambitus''. The ''final'' is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The ''dominant'' is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [[reciting tone]] in the melody. ''[[Ambitus (music)|Ambitus]]'' refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as ''plagal'', while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as ''authentic''. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 64–5.</ref> The existent pseudo-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix "Hypo-" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.<br />
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:Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [[Dorian mode|Dorian]] and [[Hypodorian mode|Hypodorian]].<br />
:Modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] and [[Hypophrygian mode|Hypophrygian]].<br />
:Modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [[Lydian mode|Lydian]] and [[Hypolydian mode|Hypolydian]].<br />
:Modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [[Mixolydian mode|Mixolydian]] and [[Hypomixolydian mode|Hypomixolydian]].<br />
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Although the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]], [[Locrian mode|Locrian]], and [[Ionian mode|Ionian]], these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [[Transposition (music)|transpositions]] of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.<br />
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Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the [[psalm tone]]s between antiphons and psalm verses.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 82.</ref><br />
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Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants — especially from German sources — whose [[neume]]s suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 22.</ref> Early Gregorian chant, like [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Old Roman chant]], whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 166–78, and Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 454.</ref> The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th-century [[Cistercian]] reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismas trimmed, B-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 608–10.</ref> Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants — notably Communions — defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion ''Circuibo'' was transcribed using a different mode in each.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 171–2.</ref><br />
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===Musical idiom===<br />
Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [[steps and skips|stepwise]]. Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as [[Ambrosian chant]] or [[Beneventan chant]]. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D-F-G-A-C.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 256–7.</ref> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F-A-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 21.</ref> Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [[Offertory|Offertories]]; in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Agnus Dei]]; and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]], and the [[Credo]].<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 258–9.</ref><br />
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Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [[centonization|centonized]] to create [[Gradual]]s and [[Tract (liturgy)|Tracts]] follow a musical "grammar" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the ''[[Iustus ut palma]]'' family of Graduals.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 344–63.</ref> Several [[Introit]]s in mode 3, including ''Loquetur Dominus'' above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 110–113.</ref> Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
{{Main|Neume}}<br />
[[Image:Neume2.jpg|thumb|270px|right| Offertory ''Iubilate deo universa terra'' in unheightened [[neume]]s.]]<br />
The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written ca. 950) used symbols called ''[[neume]]s'' (Gr. sign (of the hand) to indicate tone-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.<br />
Scholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [[cheironomy|cheironomic]] hand-gestures, the [[ekphonetic]] notation of [[Byzantine chant]], punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.<ref>Levy, Kenneth: "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 20&nbsp;January&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.40099.2.3#music.40099.2.3 (subscription access)]</ref> Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [[Saint Martial|St. Martial de Limoges]], in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the ''custos'', placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter "t" to indicate a [[tenuto]]. Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [[Shaker music]] is notated.<br />
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[[Image:gregorian chant.gif|frame|270px|right|The ''Liber usualis'' uses square notation, as in this excerpt from the ''Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)''.]]By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in ''square notation'' on a four-line staff with a clef, as in the ''Graduale Aboense'' pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of [[Dom. E. Cardine]] (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.<br />
B-flat is indicated by a "b-mollum" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the "Kyrie" to the right. When necessary, a "b-durum" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B-natural and serves to cancel the b-mollum . This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97762Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:16:45Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
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<div>'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Orthodoxy]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience in the [[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.<br />
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==History==<br />
Gregorian chant was organized, codified, and notated mainly in the [[Franks|Frankish]] lands of western and central Europe during the 10th to 13th centuries, with later additions and redactions, but the texts and many of the melodies have antecedents going back several centuries earlier. Although popular belief credited [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] with having personally invented Gregorian chant (in much the same way that a biblical prophet would transmit a divinely received message), scholars now believe that the chant bearing his name arose from a later [[Carolingian]] synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]], and that at that time the attribution to Gregory I was a "marketing ruse" to invest it with a sanctified pedigree, as part of an effort to create one liturgical protocol that would be practised throughout the entire [[Holy Roman Empire]].<br />
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===Organization===<br />
Gregorian chants are organized into eight [[musical mode|modes]] (scales). Typical melodic features include characteristic [[incipit]]s and [[cadence (music)|cadences]], the use of [[reciting tone]]s around which the other notes of the [[melody]] revolve, and a vocabulary of musical motifs woven together through a process called [[centonization]] to create families of related chants.<br />
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Although the modern eight-tone major and minor scales are strongly related to two of these [[church modes]] (the Ionian and Aeolian, respectively), they function according to different harmonic rules. The church modes are based on six-note patterns called [[hexachord]]s, the main notes of which are called the ''dominant'' and the ''final''. Depending on where the final falls in the sequence of the hexachord, the mode is characterized as either ''authentic'' or ''plagal''. Modes with the same final share certain characteristics, and it is easy to modulate back and forth between them; hence, the eight modes fall into four larger groupings based on their finals.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
The oldest manuscripts of Gregorian chants were written using a graphic notation which uses a repertoire of specific signs called [[neume]]s; each neume designates a basic musical gesture (see [[musical notation]]). As books, made of [[vellum]] (prepared sheepskins), were very expensive, the text was abbreviated wherever possible, with the neumes written over the text. This was a notation without lines and no exact melodic contour could be deciphered from it, which implies that the repertoire was learnt by rote. In later stadia, the neumes are written onto staves of one or more lines; by the 11th century this had evolved into square notation, from which eventually the modern [[staff (music)|five-line staff]] developed in the 16th century.<ref>Development of notation styles is discussed at [http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory2.htm Dolmetsch online], accessed 4&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006</ref> As the dominating musical tradition throughout Europe, Gregorian chant became the root of all subsequent musical developments in Western music, beginning with the rise of [[polyphony]] in the 11th century.<br />
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===Singers===<br />
Gregorian chant was traditionally sung by [[choir]]s of men and boys in churches, or by women or men of [[religious order]]s in their [[chapel]]s, and is commonly heard in celebrations of the [[Tridentine Mass]] by those Catholics who follow the 1962 Missal. It is the music of the [[Roman Rite]], performed in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and the monastic [[Canonical hours|Office]]. Although Gregorian chant supplanted or marginalized the [[Latin liturgical rites|other indigenous plainchant traditions]] of the Christian West, [[Ambrosian chant]] still continues in use in Milan, and there are musicologists exploring both that and the [[Mozarabic chant]] of Christian Spain. The Roman Catholic Church still officially considers Gregorian chant the music most suitable for worship in the [[Roman Rite]].<ref name=Catholic>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council]. This view is held at the highest levels, including [[Pope Benedict XVI]]: [http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=44963 Catholic World News 28&nbsp;June&nbsp;2006] both accessed 5&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006</ref> During the late 20th century, Gregorian chant underwent a musicological and popular resurgence both within and outside the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
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===Development of earlier plainchant===<br />
Singing has been part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgy]] since the earliest days of the Church. Until the mid-1990s, it was widely accepted that the [[psalms|psalmody]] of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Jewish]] worship significantly influenced and contributed to [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] ritual and chant. This view is no longer generally accepted by scholars, due to analysis that shows that most early Christian hymns did not have Psalms for texts, and that the Psalms were not sung in [[synagogue]]s for centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Destruction of the Second Temple]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;70.<ref>David Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–5.</ref> However, early Christian rites did incorporate elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [[Canonical hours]] have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. "[[Amen]]" and "[[alleluia]]" come from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and the threefold "[[sanctus]]" derives from the threefold "kadosh" of the [[Kedusha]].<ref>Willi Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 34.</ref><br />
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The [[New Testament]] mentions singing hymns during the [[Last Supper]]: "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [[Mount of Olives]]" {{bibleverse||Matthew|26.30|NT}}. Other ancient witnesses such as [[Pope Clement I]], [[Tertullian]], [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], and [[Egeria (pilgrim)|Egeria]] confirm the practice,<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 74.</ref> although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–7 and James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 72.</ref> The 3rd-century Greek "[[Oxyrhynchus hymn]]" survived with musical notation, but the connection between this hymn and the plainchant tradition is uncertain.<ref>McKinnon, James W.: "Christian Church, music of the early", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 11&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/ (subscription access)]</ref><br />
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Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', attributed to the theologian [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], attests the singing of [[Hallel]] psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [[agape feast|''agape'' feasts]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 486.</ref> Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony]] introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [[antiphon]]al psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] introduced this practice to the West.<br />
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Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] described the [[responsory|responsorial]] singing of a [[Gradual]] psalm at Mass. At ca. 520, [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedictus of Nursia]] established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [[York]].<ref>James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 320.</ref> Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([[Celtic chant]]), Spain ([[Mozarabic chant|Mozarabic]]), Gaul ([[Gallican chant|Gallican]]), and Italy ([[Old Roman chant|Old Roman]], [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Beneventan chant|Beneventan]]). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year-round repertory of 5th-century plainchant after the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed.<br />
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===Origins of the new tradition===<br />
[[Image:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|right| A dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]] sitting on [[Pope Gregory I]]'s shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration]]The Gregorian repertory was systematized for use in the [[Roman Rite]]. According to [[James McKinnon]], the core liturgy of the Roman Mass was compiled over a brief period in the 8th century in a project overseen by [[Chrodegang]] of [[Metz]]. Other scholars, including Andreas Pfisterer and Peter Jeffery, have argued for an earlier origin for the oldest layers of the repertory.<br />
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Scholars debate whether the essentials of the melodies originated in Rome, before the 7th century, or in [[Franks|Francia]], in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Traditionalists point to evidence supporting an important role for [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] between 590 and 604, such as that presented in Heinrich Bewerunge's article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.<ref>{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gregorian chant|Gregorian chant]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}, article by Heinrich Bewerunge.</ref> Scholarly consensus, supported by [[Willi Apel]] and Robert Snow, asserts instead that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]] commissioned by [[Carolingian]] rulers in France. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [[Pope Stephen II]] had celebrated [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] using Roman chant. According to [[Charlemagne]], his father [[Pippin the Younger|Pepin]] abolished the local [[Gallican rite]]s in favor of the Roman use, in order to strengthen ties with Rome.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 79.</ref> In 785–786, at Charlemagne's request, [[Pope Hadrian I]] sent a papal [[sacramentary]] with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. This Roman chant was subsequently modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and later adapted into the system of eight [[musical mode|modes]]. This Frankish-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, became known as "Gregorian." Originally the chant was probably so named to honor the contemporary [[Pope Gregory II]],<ref>McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 114.</ref> but later lore attributed the authorship of chant to his more famous predecessor Gregory the Great. Gregory was portrayed dictating plainchant inspired by a dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]], giving Gregorian chant the stamp of holy authority. Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted as fact to this day.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 13.</ref><br />
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===Dissemination and hegemony===<br />
Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [[Charlemagne]], once elevated to [[Holy Roman Emperor]], aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.<ref>David Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 10.</ref> From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 604.</ref> In 885, [[Pope Stephen V]] banned the [[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [[Poland]], [[Moravia]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Austria]].<br />
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The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 80.</ref> The Gregorian chant of the [[Sarum Rite]] displaced [[Celtic chant]]. Gregorian coexisted with [[Beneventan chant]] for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058). [[Mozarabic chant]] survived the influx of the [[Visigoths]] and [[Moors]], but not the Roman-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [[Reconquista]]. Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. [[Ambrosian chant]] alone survived to the present day, preserved in [[Milan]] due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]].<br />
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Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as [[Old Roman chant]]. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from the German Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [[Credo]] was added to the [[Roman Rite]] at the behest of the German emperor [[Henry II of Germany|Henry II]] in 1014.<ref>Richard Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 47.</ref> Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.<br />
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Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [[musical mode|modes]]. Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the ''[[Improperia]]'' of [[Good Friday]] are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.<ref>Carl Parrish, "A Treasury of Early Music" pp. 8–9</ref><br />
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===Early sources and later revisions===<br />
The first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [[Regensburg]] in Germany, [[Abbey of St. Gall|St. Gall]] in Switzerland, [[Laon]] and [[Abbey of St. Martial|St. Martial]] in France.<br />
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Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of St. Pierre, Solesmes, has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical "original" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [[musical mode|modes]]. In 1562–63, the [[Council of Trent]] banned most [[sequence (poetry)|sequences]]. Guidette's ''Directorium chori'', published in 1582, and the ''Editio medicea'', published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed "barbarism" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 288–289.</ref> In 1811, the French musicologist [[Alexandre-Étienne Choron]], as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [[French Revolution]], called for returning to the "purer" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 622.</ref><br />
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In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [[Prosper Gueranger]] revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([[Pustet]], Regensburg) which [[Pope Pius IX]] declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of [[St. Peter's Abbey, Solesmes|Solesmes]] released the first book in a planned series, the [[Paléographie Musicale]]. The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms. <br />
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The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duely published in [[facsimile]] editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] died. His successor, [[Pope Pius X]], promptly accepted the Solesmes chant — now compiled as the ''[[Liber usualis]]'' — as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] marks and note-lengthening ''episema'' and ''mora'' marks not found in the original sources. <br />
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Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices has placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 624–627.</ref> Ever since the restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the established performance tradition since the onset of the restoration is at odds with musicological evidence.<br />
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In his [[motu proprio]] ''[[Tra le sollecitudini]]'', Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], although he reserved the singing of the [[proper (liturgy)|Propers]] for males. While this custom is maintained in [[traditionalist Catholic]] communities, the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [[Vatican II]] officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html |title=The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council |publisher=Christusrex.org |date=1963-12-04 |accessdate=2011-01-03}}</ref><br />
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==Musical form==<br />
===Melodic types===<br />
Gregorian chant is, of course, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called "syllabic" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. "Neumatic" chants are more embellished and [[ligature (music)|ligature]]s, a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [[Melismatic]] chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismas.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 85–88.</ref><br />
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Gregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [[recitative]]s and free melodies.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 203</ref> The simplest kind of melody is the '''liturgical recitative'''. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the ''[[reciting tone]]''. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [[incipit]]s, partial [[cadence (music)|cadences]], and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [[Collect]] for [[Easter]] consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.<ref>Hoppin, ''Anthology of Medieval Music'' p. 11.</ref> Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [[Accentus Ecclesiasticus|accentus]] chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [[Epistle]], and [[Gospel]] during the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], and in the direct [[psalmody]] of the [[Canonical hours|Office]].{{listen|filename=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg|title=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day|description=example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Psalmodic chants''', which intone [[psalms]], include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include ''direct psalmody'', ''antiphonal chants'', and ''responsorial chants''.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 81.</ref> In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.<br />
[[Image:Evora06.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Missal with Gregorian chants]]<br />
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'''Antiphonal chants''' such as the [[Introit]], and [[Communion (chant)|Communion]] originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an ''[[antiphon]]''. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [[Doxology]], or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo|Gloria]], are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.{{listen|filename=Loquetur Dominus.ogg|title=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time|description=example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Responsorial chants''' such as the [[Gradual]], [[Alleluia]], [[Offertory]], and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a ''respond'' sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [[Responsory|Responsorial]] chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called ''[[centonization]]''. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized. {{listen|filename=De profundis.ogg|title=''De profundis'', Tract for the Requiem Mass|description=example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of sanctified bread and wine. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 123.</ref><br />
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The non-psalmodic chants, including the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], [[Sequence (poetry)|sequences]], and [[hymn]]s, were originally intended for congregational singing.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 131.</ref> The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.<br />
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===Modality===<br />
{{Main|Musical mode}}<br />
Early plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [[diatonic scale]]. Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [[Musica enchiriadis|Enchiriadis]] group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F#, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b-flat was first described by Hucbald, who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.<br />
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Around 1025, [[Guido d'Arezzo]] revolutionized Western music with the development of the ''gamut'', in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [[hexachord]]s. Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C-D-E^F-G-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B-flat, F-G-A^Bb-C-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B-natural, G-A-B^C-D-E). The B-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [[accidental (music)|accidental]]. The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [[musica ficta]].<br />
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Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [[musical mode|modes]], influenced by the eightfold division of Byzantine chants called the ''[[oktoechos]]''.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 11.</ref> Each mode is distinguished by its ''final'', ''dominant'', and ''ambitus''. The ''final'' is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The ''dominant'' is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [[reciting tone]] in the melody. ''[[Ambitus (music)|Ambitus]]'' refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as ''plagal'', while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as ''authentic''. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 64–5.</ref> The existent pseudo-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix "Hypo-" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.<br />
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:Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [[Dorian mode|Dorian]] and [[Hypodorian mode|Hypodorian]].<br />
:Modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] and [[Hypophrygian mode|Hypophrygian]].<br />
:Modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [[Lydian mode|Lydian]] and [[Hypolydian mode|Hypolydian]].<br />
:Modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [[Mixolydian mode|Mixolydian]] and [[Hypomixolydian mode|Hypomixolydian]].<br />
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Although the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]], [[Locrian mode|Locrian]], and [[Ionian mode|Ionian]], these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [[Transposition (music)|transpositions]] of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.<br />
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Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the [[psalm tone]]s between antiphons and psalm verses.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 82.</ref><br />
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Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants — especially from German sources — whose [[neume]]s suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 22.</ref> Early Gregorian chant, like [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Old Roman chant]], whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 166–78, and Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 454.</ref> The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th-century [[Cistercian]] reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismas trimmed, B-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 608–10.</ref> Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants — notably Communions — defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion ''Circuibo'' was transcribed using a different mode in each.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 171–2.</ref><br />
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===Musical idiom===<br />
Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [[steps and skips|stepwise]]. Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as [[Ambrosian chant]] or [[Beneventan chant]]. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D-F-G-A-C.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 256–7.</ref> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F-A-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 21.</ref> Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [[Offertory|Offertories]]; in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Agnus Dei]]; and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]], and the [[Credo]].<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 258–9.</ref><br />
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Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [[centonization|centonized]] to create [[Gradual]]s and [[Tract (liturgy)|Tracts]] follow a musical "grammar" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the ''[[Iustus ut palma]]'' family of Graduals.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 344–63.</ref> Several [[Introit]]s in mode 3, including ''Loquetur Dominus'' above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 110–113.</ref> Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
{{Main|Neume}}<br />
[[Image:Neume2.jpg|thumb|270px|right| Offertory ''Iubilate deo universa terra'' in unheightened [[neume]]s.]]<br />
The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written ca. 950) used symbols called ''[[neume]]s'' (Gr. sign (of the hand) to indicate tone-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.<br />
Scholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [[cheironomy|cheironomic]] hand-gestures, the [[ekphonetic]] notation of [[Byzantine chant]], punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.<ref>Levy, Kenneth: "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 20&nbsp;January&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.40099.2.3#music.40099.2.3 (subscription access)]</ref> Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [[Saint Martial|St. Martial de Limoges]], in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the ''custos'', placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter "t" to indicate a [[tenuto]]. Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [[Shaker music]] is notated.<br />
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[[Image:gregorian chant.gif|frame|270px|right|The ''Liber usualis'' uses square notation, as in this excerpt from the ''Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)''.]]By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in ''square notation'' on a four-line staff with a clef, as in the ''Graduale Aboense'' pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of [[Dom. E. Cardine]] (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.<br />
B-flat is indicated by a "b-mollum" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the "Kyrie" to the right. When necessary, a "b-durum" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B-natural and serves to cancel the b-mollum . This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gregorian_Chant&diff=97761Gregorian Chant2011-02-06T15:13:44Z<p>Orthophil: New page: {{featured article}} {| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%" |- | 300px|<br />The Introit ''Gaudeamus omnes''...</p>
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<div>{{featured article}}<br />
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%"<br />
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| [[Image:Graduale Aboense 2.jpg|300px|]]<br />The [[Introit]] ''Gaudeamus omnes'', scripted in [[square notation]] in the 14th—15th century ''Graduale&nbsp;Aboense'', honors [[Henry (Bishop of Uppsala)|Henry, patron saint of Finland.]]<br />
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| {{listen|filename=Gaudeamus omnes - Graduale Aboense.ogg|title=''Gaudeamus omnes'', Introit for the Mass in honor of Henry, patron saint of Finland|description=Click on the manuscript image and download the high-resolution version to follow along with the score, starting at the large calligraphed "G." The antiphon repeats after the psalm verse ''"Annunciabunt...quẽ fecit dominus"'' and again after the ''"Gloria patri."'' Only the beginning and end of the ''"Gloria patri"'' are in the manuscript; "EVOVAE" represents the vowels in the final six syllables, ''"s'''æ'''c'''u'''l'''o'''r'''u'''m, '''a'''m'''e'''n."'' The Latin is pronounced in the manner of Renaissance Germany, based on Åbo's German ecclesiastical connections.}}<br />
|}<br />
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'''Gregorian chant''' is the central tradition of Western [[plainsong|plainchant]], a form of [[monophony|monophonic]] [[liturgy|liturgical]] music within [[Western Christianity]] that accompanied the celebration of Mass and other ritual services. It is named after [[Pope Gregory I]], Bishop of Rome from 590 to 604, who is traditionally credited for having ordered the simplification and cataloging of music assigned to specific celebrations in the church calendar. The resulting body of music is the first to be notated in a system ancestral to modern musical notation. In general, the chants were learned by the [[viva voce (disambiguation)|viva voce]] method, that is, by following the given example orally, which took many years of experience in the [[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]. Gregorian chant originated in monastic life, in which celebrating the 'Divine Office' eight times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the [[Rule of St Benedict|Rule of St. Benedict]]. Singing psalms made up a large part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group and soloists sang the chants. In its long history, Gregorian chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and some reforms.<br />
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==History==<br />
Gregorian chant was organized, codified, and notated mainly in the [[Franks|Frankish]] lands of western and central Europe during the 10th to 13th centuries, with later additions and redactions, but the texts and many of the melodies have antecedents going back several centuries earlier. Although popular belief credited [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] with having personally invented Gregorian chant (in much the same way that a biblical prophet would transmit a divinely received message), scholars now believe that the chant bearing his name arose from a later [[Carolingian]] synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]], and that at that time the attribution to Gregory I was a "marketing ruse" to invest it with a sanctified pedigree, as part of an effort to create one liturgical protocol that would be practised throughout the entire [[Holy Roman Empire]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}<br />
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During the following centuries, the chant tradition remained at the heart of Church music and served as the dominant platform for new performance and compositional practices. Newly composed music on new texts was first introduced within the context of existing [[plainchant]]. The late medieval style known as [[organum]], where one or more voices have been added to a plainchant (acting as a [[cantus firmus]]) to form a new composition, marked the birth of [[polyphony]] in Western music. The Parisian composers [[Leonin]] and [[Perotin]], chief exponents of the [[Notre Dame school]] of the late 12th century, continued to end their organum compositions with passages of [[monophony|monophonic]] chant, so that continuity with the older tradition remained explicit. (The practice of juxtaposing monophonic chant with polyphonic writing can be found as late as the French [[Baroque]] composer [[François Couperin]] (1668–1733), whose organ masses were meant to be performed with interludes of the appropriate plainchant.) Although it had mostly fallen into disuse after the Baroque period, Gregorian chant experienced a revival in the 19th century in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Anglo-Catholic]] wing of the [[Anglican Communion]].<br />
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===Organization===<br />
Gregorian chants are organized into eight [[musical mode|modes]] (scales). Typical melodic features include characteristic [[incipit]]s and [[cadence (music)|cadences]], the use of [[reciting tone]]s around which the other notes of the [[melody]] revolve, and a vocabulary of musical motifs woven together through a process called [[centonization]] to create families of related chants.<br />
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Although the modern eight-tone major and minor scales are strongly related to two of these [[church modes]] (the Ionian and Aeolian, respectively), they function according to different harmonic rules. The church modes are based on six-note patterns called [[hexachord]]s, the main notes of which are called the ''dominant'' and the ''final''. Depending on where the final falls in the sequence of the hexachord, the mode is characterized as either ''authentic'' or ''plagal''. Modes with the same final share certain characteristics, and it is easy to modulate back and forth between them; hence, the eight modes fall into four larger groupings based on their finals.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
The oldest manuscripts of Gregorian chants were written using a graphic notation which uses a repertoire of specific signs called [[neume]]s; each neume designates a basic musical gesture (see [[musical notation]]). As books, made of [[vellum]] (prepared sheepskins), were very expensive, the text was abbreviated wherever possible, with the neumes written over the text. This was a notation without lines and no exact melodic contour could be deciphered from it, which implies that the repertoire was learnt by rote. In later stadia, the neumes are written onto staves of one or more lines; by the 11th century this had evolved into square notation, from which eventually the modern [[staff (music)|five-line staff]] developed in the 16th century.<ref>Development of notation styles is discussed at [http://www.dolmetsch.com/musictheory2.htm Dolmetsch online], accessed 4&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006</ref> As the dominating musical tradition throughout Europe, Gregorian chant became the root of all subsequent musical developments in Western music, beginning with the rise of [[polyphony]] in the 11th century.<br />
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===Singers===<br />
Gregorian chant was traditionally sung by [[choir]]s of men and boys in churches, or by women or men of [[religious order]]s in their [[chapel]]s, and is commonly heard in celebrations of the [[Tridentine Mass]] by those Catholics who follow the 1962 Missal. It is the music of the [[Roman Rite]], performed in the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and the monastic [[Canonical hours|Office]]. Although Gregorian chant supplanted or marginalized the [[Latin liturgical rites|other indigenous plainchant traditions]] of the Christian West, [[Ambrosian chant]] still continues in use in Milan, and there are musicologists exploring both that and the [[Mozarabic chant]] of Christian Spain. The Roman Catholic Church still officially considers Gregorian chant the music most suitable for worship in the [[Roman Rite]].<ref name=Catholic>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council]. This view is held at the highest levels, including [[Pope Benedict XVI]]: [http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=44963 Catholic World News 28&nbsp;June&nbsp;2006] both accessed 5&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006</ref> During the late 20th century, Gregorian chant underwent a musicological and popular resurgence both within and outside the Roman Catholic Church.<br />
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===Development of earlier plainchant===<br />
Singing has been part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgy]] since the earliest days of the Church. Until the mid-1990s, it was widely accepted that the [[psalms|psalmody]] of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|ancient Jewish]] worship significantly influenced and contributed to [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] ritual and chant. This view is no longer generally accepted by scholars, due to analysis that shows that most early Christian hymns did not have Psalms for texts, and that the Psalms were not sung in [[synagogue]]s for centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Destruction of the Second Temple]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&nbsp;70.<ref>David Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–5.</ref> However, early Christian rites did incorporate elements of Jewish worship that survived in later chant tradition. [[Canonical hours]] have their roots in Jewish prayer hours. "[[Amen]]" and "[[alleluia]]" come from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and the threefold "[[sanctus]]" derives from the threefold "kadosh" of the [[Kedusha]].<ref>Willi Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 34.</ref><br />
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The [[New Testament]] mentions singing hymns during the [[Last Supper]]: "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the [[Mount of Olives]]" {{bibleverse||Matthew|26.30|NT}}. Other ancient witnesses such as [[Pope Clement I]], [[Tertullian]], [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], and [[Egeria (pilgrim)|Egeria]] confirm the practice,<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 74.</ref> although in poetic or obscure ways that shed little light on how music sounded during this period.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 484–7 and James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 72.</ref> The 3rd-century Greek "[[Oxyrhynchus hymn]]" survived with musical notation, but the connection between this hymn and the plainchant tradition is uncertain.<ref>McKinnon, James W.: "Christian Church, music of the early", Grove Music Online ed. L. Macy (Accessed 11&nbsp;July&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/ (subscription access)]</ref><br />
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Musical elements that would later be used in the Roman Rite began to appear in the 3rd century. The ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', attributed to the theologian [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], attests the singing of [[Hallel]] psalms with Alleluia as the refrain in early Christian [[agape feast|''agape'' feasts]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 486.</ref> Chants of the Office, sung during the canonical hours, have their roots in the early 4th century, when desert monks following [[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony]] introduced the practice of continuous psalmody, singing the complete cycle of 150 psalms each week. Around 375, [[antiphon]]al psalmody became popular in the Christian East; in 386, [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]] introduced this practice to the West.<br />
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Scholars are still debating how plainchant developed during the 5th through the 9th centuries, as information from this period is scarce. Around 410, [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] described the [[responsory|responsorial]] singing of a [[Gradual]] psalm at Mass. At ca. 520, [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedictus of Nursia]] established what is called the rule of St. Benedict, in which the protocol of the Divine Office for monastic use was laid down. Around 678, Roman chant was taught at [[York]].<ref>James McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 320.</ref> Distinctive regional traditions of Western plainchant arose during this period, notably in the British Isles ([[Celtic chant]]), Spain ([[Mozarabic chant|Mozarabic]]), Gaul ([[Gallican chant|Gallican]]), and Italy ([[Old Roman chant|Old Roman]], [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Beneventan chant|Beneventan]]). These traditions may have evolved from a hypothetical year-round repertory of 5th-century plainchant after the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed.<br />
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===Origins of the new tradition===<br />
[[Image:Gregory I - Antiphonary of Hartker of Sankt Gallen.jpg|thumb|right| A dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]] sitting on [[Pope Gregory I]]'s shoulder symbolizes Divine Inspiration]]The Gregorian repertory was systematized for use in the [[Roman Rite]]. According to [[James McKinnon]], the core liturgy of the Roman Mass was compiled over a brief period in the 8th century in a project overseen by [[Chrodegang]] of [[Metz]]. Other scholars, including Andreas Pfisterer and Peter Jeffery, have argued for an earlier origin for the oldest layers of the repertory.<br />
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Scholars debate whether the essentials of the melodies originated in Rome, before the 7th century, or in [[Franks|Francia]], in the 8th and early 9th centuries. Traditionalists point to evidence supporting an important role for [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] between 590 and 604, such as that presented in Heinrich Bewerunge's article in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia''.<ref>{{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gregorian chant|Gregorian chant]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}, article by Heinrich Bewerunge.</ref> Scholarly consensus, supported by [[Willi Apel]] and Robert Snow, asserts instead that Gregorian chant developed around 750 from a synthesis of Roman and [[Gallican chant]] commissioned by [[Carolingian]] rulers in France. During a visit to Gaul in 752–753, [[Pope Stephen II]] had celebrated [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] using Roman chant. According to [[Charlemagne]], his father [[Pippin the Younger|Pepin]] abolished the local [[Gallican rite]]s in favor of the Roman use, in order to strengthen ties with Rome.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 79.</ref> In 785–786, at Charlemagne's request, [[Pope Hadrian I]] sent a papal [[sacramentary]] with Roman chants to the Carolingian court. This Roman chant was subsequently modified, influenced by local styles and Gallican chant, and later adapted into the system of eight [[musical mode|modes]]. This Frankish-Roman Carolingian chant, augmented with new chants to complete the liturgical year, became known as "Gregorian." Originally the chant was probably so named to honor the contemporary [[Pope Gregory II]],<ref>McKinnon, ''Antiquity and the Middle Ages'' p. 114.</ref> but later lore attributed the authorship of chant to his more famous predecessor Gregory the Great. Gregory was portrayed dictating plainchant inspired by a dove representing the [[Holy Spirit]], giving Gregorian chant the stamp of holy authority. Gregory's authorship is popularly accepted as fact to this day.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 13.</ref><br />
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===Dissemination and hegemony===<br />
Gregorian chant appeared in a remarkably uniform state across Europe within a short time. [[Charlemagne]], once elevated to [[Holy Roman Emperor]], aggressively spread Gregorian chant throughout his empire to consolidate religious and secular power, requiring the clergy to use the new repertory on pain of death.<ref>David Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 10.</ref> From English and German sources, Gregorian chant spread north to [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]].<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 604.</ref> In 885, [[Pope Stephen V]] banned the [[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] liturgy, leading to the ascendancy of Gregorian chant in Eastern Catholic lands including [[Poland]], [[Moravia]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Austria]].<br />
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The other plainchant repertories of the Christian West faced severe competition from the new Gregorian chant. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of favoring the Roman Rite over the local Gallican traditions. By the 9th century the Gallican rite and chant had effectively been eliminated, although not without local resistance.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 80.</ref> The Gregorian chant of the [[Sarum Rite]] displaced [[Celtic chant]]. Gregorian coexisted with [[Beneventan chant]] for over a century before Beneventan chant was abolished by papal decree (1058). [[Mozarabic chant]] survived the influx of the [[Visigoths]] and [[Moors]], but not the Roman-backed prelates newly installed in Spain during the [[Reconquista]]. Restricted to a handful of dedicated chapels, modern Mozarabic chant is highly Gregorianized and bears no musical resemblance to its original form. [[Ambrosian chant]] alone survived to the present day, preserved in [[Milan]] due to the musical reputation and ecclesiastical authority of [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]].<br />
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Gregorian chant eventually replaced the local chant tradition of Rome itself, which is now known as [[Old Roman chant]]. In the 10th century, virtually no musical manuscripts were being notated in Italy. Instead, Roman Popes imported Gregorian chant from the German Holy Roman Emperors during the 10th and 11th centuries. For example, the [[Credo]] was added to the [[Roman Rite]] at the behest of the German emperor [[Henry II of Germany|Henry II]] in 1014.<ref>Richard Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 47.</ref> Reinforced by the legend of Pope Gregory, Gregorian chant was taken to be the authentic, original chant of Rome, a misconception that continues to this day. By the 12th and 13th centuries, Gregorian chant had supplanted or marginalized all the other Western plainchant traditions.<br />
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Later sources of these other chant traditions show an increasing Gregorian influence, such as occasional efforts to categorize their chants into the Gregorian [[musical mode|modes]]. Similarly, the Gregorian repertory incorporated elements of these lost plainchant traditions, which can be identified by careful stylistic and historical analysis. For example, the ''[[Improperia]]'' of [[Good Friday]] are believed to be a remnant of the Gallican repertory.<ref>Carl Parrish, "A Treasury of Early Music" pp. 8–9</ref><br />
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===Early sources and later revisions===<br />
The first extant sources with musical notation were written around 930 (Graduale Laon). Before this, plainchant had been transmitted orally. Most scholars of Gregorian chant agree that the development of music notation assisted the dissemination of chant across Europe. The earlier notated manuscripts are primarily from [[Regensburg]] in Germany, [[Abbey of St. Gall|St. Gall]] in Switzerland, [[Laon]] and [[Abbey of St. Martial|St. Martial]] in France.<br />
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Gregorian chant has in its long history been subjected to a series of redactions to bring it up to changing contemporary tastes and practice. The more recent redaction undertaken in the Benedictine Abbey of St. Pierre, Solesmes, has turned into a huge undertaking to restore the allegedly corrupted chant to a hypothetical "original" state. Early Gregorian chant was revised to conform to the theoretical structure of the [[musical mode|modes]]. In 1562–63, the [[Council of Trent]] banned most [[sequence (poetry)|sequences]]. Guidette's ''Directorium chori'', published in 1582, and the ''Editio medicea'', published in 1614, drastically revised what was perceived as corrupt and flawed "barbarism" by making the chants conform to contemporary aesthetic standards.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 288–289.</ref> In 1811, the French musicologist [[Alexandre-Étienne Choron]], as part of a conservative backlash following the liberal Catholic orders' inefficacy during the [[French Revolution]], called for returning to the "purer" Gregorian chant of Rome over French corruptions.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 622.</ref><br />
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In the late 19th century, early liturgical and musical manuscripts were unearthed and edited. Earlier, Dom [[Prosper Gueranger]] revived the monastic tradition in Solesmes. Re-establishing the Divine Office was among his priorities, but no proper chantbooks existed. Many monks were sent out to libraries throughout Europe to find relevant Chant manuscripts. In 1871, however, the old Medicea edition was reprinted ([[Pustet]], Regensburg) which [[Pope Pius IX]] declared the only official version. In their firm belief that they were on the right way, Solesmes increased its efforts. In 1889, after decades of research, the monks of [[St. Peter's Abbey, Solesmes|Solesmes]] released the first book in a planned series, the [[Paléographie Musicale]]. The incentive of its publication was to demonstrate the corruption of the 'Medicea' by presenting photographed notations originating from a great variety of manuscripts of one single chant, which Solesmes called forth as witnesses to assert their own reforms. <br />
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The monks of Solesmes brought in their heaviest artillery in this battle, as indeed the academically sound 'Paleo' was intended to be a war-tank, meant to abolish once and for all the corrupted Pustet edition. On the evidence of congruence throughout various manuscripts (which were duely published in [[facsimile]] editions with ample editorial introductions) Solesmes was able to work out a practical reconstruction. This reconstructed chant was academically praised, but rejected by Rome until 1903, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] died. His successor, [[Pope Pius X]], promptly accepted the Solesmes chant — now compiled as the ''[[Liber usualis]]'' — as authoritative. In 1904, the Vatican edition of the Solesmes chant was commissioned. Serious academic debates arose, primarily owing to stylistic liberties taken by the Solesmes editors to impose their controversial interpretation of rhythm. The Solesmes editions insert [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] marks and note-lengthening ''episema'' and ''mora'' marks not found in the original sources. <br />
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Conversely, they omit significative letters found in the original sources, which give instructions for rhythm and articulation such as speeding up or slowing down. These editorial practices has placed the historical authenticity of the Solesmes interpretation in doubt.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 624–627.</ref> Ever since the restoration of Chant was taken up in Solesmes, there have been lengthy discussions of exactly what course was to be taken. Some favored a strict academic rigour and wanted to postpone publications, while others concentrated on practical matters and wanted to supplant the corrupted tradition as soon as possible. Roughly a century later, there still exists a breach between a strict musicological approach and the practical needs of church choirs. Thus the established performance tradition since the onset of the restoration is at odds with musicological evidence.<br />
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In his [[motu proprio]] ''[[Tra le sollecitudini]]'', Pius X mandated the use of Gregorian chant, encouraging the faithful to sing the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], although he reserved the singing of the [[proper (liturgy)|Propers]] for males. While this custom is maintained in [[traditionalist Catholic]] communities, the Catholic Church no longer persists with this ban. [[Vatican II]] officially allowed worshipers to substitute other music, particularly sacred polyphony, in place of Gregorian chant, although it did reaffirm that Gregorian chant was still the official music of the Catholic Church, and the music most suitable for worship.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/v8.html |title=The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Second Vatican Council |publisher=Christusrex.org |date=1963-12-04 |accessdate=2011-01-03}}</ref><br />
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==Musical form==<br />
===Melodic types===<br />
Gregorian chant is, of course, vocal music. The text, the phrases, words and eventually the syllables, can be sung in various ways. The most straightforward is recitation on the same tone, which is called "syllabic" as each syllable is sung to a single tone. Likewise, simple chants are often syllabic throughout with only a few instances where two or more notes are sung on one syllable. "Neumatic" chants are more embellished and [[ligature (music)|ligature]]s, a connected group of notes, written as a single compound neume, abound in the text. [[Melismatic]] chants are the most ornate chants in which elaborate melodies are sung on long sustained vowels as in the Alleluia, ranging from five or six notes per syllable to over sixty in the more prolix melismas.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 85–88.</ref><br />
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Gregorian chants fall into two broad categories of melody: [[recitative]]s and free melodies.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 203</ref> The simplest kind of melody is the '''liturgical recitative'''. Recitative melodies are dominated by a single pitch, called the ''[[reciting tone]]''. Other pitches appear in melodic formulae for [[incipit]]s, partial [[cadence (music)|cadences]], and full cadences. These chants are primarily syllabic. For example, the [[Collect]] for [[Easter]] consists of 127 syllables sung to 131 pitches, with 108 of these pitches being the reciting note A and the other 23 pitches flexing down to G.<ref>Hoppin, ''Anthology of Medieval Music'' p. 11.</ref> Liturgical recitatives are commonly found in the [[Accentus Ecclesiasticus|accentus]] chants of the liturgy, such as the intonations of the Collect, [[Epistle]], and [[Gospel]] during the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]], and in the direct [[psalmody]] of the [[Canonical hours|Office]].{{listen|filename=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day.ogg|title=Epistle for the Solemn Mass of Easter Day|description=example of liturgical recitative in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Psalmodic chants''', which intone [[psalms]], include both recitatives and free melodies. Psalmodic chants include ''direct psalmody'', ''antiphonal chants'', and ''responsorial chants''.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 81.</ref> In direct psalmody, psalm verses are sung without refrains to simple, formulaic tones. Most psalmodic chants are antiphonal and responsorial, sung to free melodies of varying complexity.<br />
[[Image:Evora06.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Missal with Gregorian chants]]<br />
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'''Antiphonal chants''' such as the [[Introit]], and [[Communion (chant)|Communion]] originally referred to chants in which two choirs sang in alternation, one choir singing verses of a psalm, the other singing a refrain called an ''[[antiphon]]''. Over time, the verses were reduced in number, usually to just one psalm verse and the [[Doxology]], or even omitted entirely. Antiphonal chants reflect their ancient origins as elaborate recitatives through the reciting tones in their melodies. Ordinary chants, such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo|Gloria]], are not considered antiphonal chants, although they are often performed in antiphonal style.{{listen|filename=Loquetur Dominus.ogg|title=''Loquetur Dominus'', Introit for Week XXXIV of Ordinary Time|description=example of antiphonal psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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'''Responsorial chants''' such as the [[Gradual]], [[Alleluia]], [[Offertory]], and the Office Responsories originally consisted of a refrain called a ''respond'' sung by a choir, alternating with psalm verses sung by a soloist. [[Responsory|Responsorial]] chants are often composed of an amalgamation of various stock musical phrases, pieced together in a practice called ''[[centonization]]''. Tracts are melismatic settings of psalm verses and use frequent recurring cadences and they are strongly centonized. {{listen|filename=De profundis.ogg|title=''De profundis'', Tract for the Requiem Mass|description=example of responsorial psalmody in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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Gregorian chant evolved to fulfill various functions in the Roman Catholic liturgy. Broadly speaking, liturgical recitatives are used for texts intoned by deacons or priests. Antiphonal chants accompany liturgical actions: the entrance of the officiant, the collection of offerings, and the distribution of sanctified bread and wine. Responsorial chants expand on readings and lessons.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 123.</ref><br />
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The non-psalmodic chants, including the [[Ordinary of the Mass]], [[Sequence (poetry)|sequences]], and [[hymn]]s, were originally intended for congregational singing.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 131.</ref> The structure of their texts largely defines their musical style. In sequences, the same melodic phrase is repeated in each couplet. The strophic texts of hymns use the same syllabic melody for each stanza.<br />
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===Modality===<br />
{{Main|Musical mode}}<br />
Early plainchant, like much of Western music, is believed to have been distinguished by the use of the [[diatonic scale]]. Modal theory, which postdates the composition of the core chant repertory, arises from a synthesis of two very different traditions: the speculative tradition of numerical ratios and species inherited from ancient Greece and a second tradition rooted in the practical art of cantus. The earliest writings that deal with both theory and practice include the [[Musica enchiriadis|Enchiriadis]] group of treatises, which circulated in the late ninth century and possibly have their roots in an earlier, oral tradition. In contrast to the ancient Greek system of tetrachords (a collection of four continuous notes) that descend by two tones and a semitone, the Enchiriadis writings base their tone-system on a tetrachord that corresponds to the four finals of chant, D, E, F, and G. The disjunct tetrachords in the Enchiriadis system have been the subject of much speculation, because they do not correspond to the diatonic framework that became the standard Medieval scale (for example, there is a high F#, a note not recognized by later Medieval writers). A diatonic scale with a chromatically alterable b/b-flat was first described by Hucbald, who adopted the tetrachord of the finals (D, E, F, G) and constructed the rest of the system following the model of the Greek Greater and Lesser Perfect Systems. These were the first steps in forging a theoretical tradition that corresponded to chant.<br />
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Around 1025, [[Guido d'Arezzo]] revolutionized Western music with the development of the ''gamut'', in which pitches in the singing range were organized into overlapping [[hexachord]]s. Hexachords could be built on C (the natural hexachord, C-D-E^F-G-A), F (the soft hexachord, using a B-flat, F-G-A^Bb-C-D), or G (the hard hexachord, using a B-natural, G-A-B^C-D-E). The B-flat was an integral part of the system of hexachords rather than an [[accidental (music)|accidental]]. The use of notes outside of this collection was described as [[musica ficta]].<br />
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Gregorian chant was categorized into eight [[musical mode|modes]], influenced by the eightfold division of Byzantine chants called the ''[[oktoechos]]''.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 11.</ref> Each mode is distinguished by its ''final'', ''dominant'', and ''ambitus''. The ''final'' is the ending note, which is usually an important note in the overall structure of the melody. The ''dominant'' is a secondary pitch that usually serves as a [[reciting tone]] in the melody. ''[[Ambitus (music)|Ambitus]]'' refers to the range of pitches used in the melody. Melodies whose final is in the middle of the ambitus, or which have only a limited ambitus, are categorized as ''plagal'', while melodies whose final is in the lower end of the ambitus and have a range of over five or six notes are categorized as ''authentic''. Although corresponding plagal and authentic modes have the same final, they have different dominants.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' pp. 64–5.</ref> The existent pseudo-Greek names of the modes, rarely used in medieval times, derive from a misunderstanding of the Ancient Greek modes; the prefix "Hypo-" (under, Gr.) indicates a plagal mode, where the melody moves below the final. In contemporary Latin manuscripts the modes are simply called Protus authentus /plagalis, Deuterus, Tritus and Tetrardus: the 1st mode, authentic or plagal, the 2nd mode etc. In the Roman Chantbooks the modes are indicated by Roman numerals.<br />
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:Modes 1 and 2 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on D, sometimes called [[Dorian mode|Dorian]] and [[Hypodorian mode|Hypodorian]].<br />
:Modes 3 and 4 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on E, sometimes called [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] and [[Hypophrygian mode|Hypophrygian]].<br />
:Modes 5 and 6 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on F, sometimes called [[Lydian mode|Lydian]] and [[Hypolydian mode|Hypolydian]].<br />
:Modes 7 and 8 are the authentic and plagal modes ending on G, sometimes called [[Mixolydian mode|Mixolydian]] and [[Hypomixolydian mode|Hypomixolydian]].<br />
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Although the modes with melodies ending on A, B, and C are sometimes referred to as [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]], [[Locrian mode|Locrian]], and [[Ionian mode|Ionian]], these are not considered distinct modes and are treated as [[Transposition (music)|transpositions]] of whichever mode uses the same set of hexachords. The actual pitch of the Gregorian chant is not fixed, so the piece can be sung in whichever range is most comfortable.<br />
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Certain classes of Gregorian chant have a separate musical formula for each mode, allowing one section of the chant to transition smoothly into the next section, such as the [[psalm tone]]s between antiphons and psalm verses.<ref>Hoppin, ''Medieval Music'' p. 82.</ref><br />
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Not every Gregorian chant fits neatly into Guido's hexachords or into the system of eight modes. For example, there are chants — especially from German sources — whose [[neume]]s suggest a warbling of pitches between the notes E and F, outside the hexachord system.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 22.</ref> Early Gregorian chant, like [[Ambrosian chant|Ambrosian]] and [[Old Roman chant]], whose melodies are most closely related to Gregorian, did not use the modal system.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 166–78, and Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 454.</ref> The great need for a system of organizing chants lies in the need to link antiphons with standard tones, as in for example, the psalmody at the Office. Using Psalm Tone i with an antiphon in Mode 1 makes for a smooth transition between the end of the antiphon and the intonation of the tone, and the ending of the tone can then be chosen to provide a smooth transition back to the antiphon. As the modal system gained acceptance, Gregorian chants were edited to conform to the modes, especially during 12th-century [[Cistercian]] reforms. Finals were altered, melodic ranges reduced, melismas trimmed, B-flats eliminated, and repeated words removed.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 608–10.</ref> Despite these attempts to impose modal consistency, some chants — notably Communions — defy simple modal assignment. For example, in four medieval manuscripts, the Communion ''Circuibo'' was transcribed using a different mode in each.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 171–2.</ref><br />
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===Musical idiom===<br />
Several features besides modality contribute to the musical idiom of Gregorian chant, giving it a distinctive musical flavor. Melodic motion is primarily [[steps and skips|stepwise]]. Skips of a third are common, and larger skips far more common than in other plainchant repertories such as [[Ambrosian chant]] or [[Beneventan chant]]. Gregorian melodies are more likely to traverse a seventh than a full octave, so that melodies rarely travel from D up to the D an octave higher, but often travel from D to the C a seventh higher, using such patterns as D-F-G-A-C.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 256–7.</ref> Gregorian melodies often explore chains of pitches, such as F-A-C, around which the other notes of the chant gravitate.<ref>Wilson, ''Music of the Middle Ages'' p. 21.</ref> Within each mode, certain incipits and cadences are preferred, which the modal theory alone does not explain. Chants often display complex internal structures that combine and repeat musical subphrases. This occurs notably in the [[Offertory|Offertories]]; in chants with shorter, repeating texts such as the [[Kyrie]] and [[Agnus Dei]]; and in longer chants with clear textual divisions such as the Great Responsories, the [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]], and the [[Credo]].<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 258–9.</ref><br />
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Chants sometimes fall into melodically related groups. The musical phrases [[centonization|centonized]] to create [[Gradual]]s and [[Tract (liturgy)|Tracts]] follow a musical "grammar" of sorts. Certain phrases are used only at the beginnings of chants, or only at the end, or only in certain combinations, creating musical families of chants such as the ''[[Iustus ut palma]]'' family of Graduals.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' pp. 344–63.</ref> Several [[Introit]]s in mode 3, including ''Loquetur Dominus'' above, exhibit melodic similarities. Mode III (E authentic) chants have C as a dominant, so C is the expected reciting tone. These mode III Introits, however, use both G and C as reciting tones, and often begin with a decorated leap from G to C to establish this tonality.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' pp. 110–113.</ref> Similar examples exist throughout the repertory.<br />
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===Notation===<br />
{{Main|Neume}}<br />
[[Image:Neume2.jpg|thumb|270px|right| Offertory ''Iubilate deo universa terra'' in unheightened [[neume]]s.]]<br />
The earliest notated sources of Gregorian chant (written ca. 950) used symbols called ''[[neume]]s'' (Gr. sign (of the hand) to indicate tone-movements and relative duration within each syllable. A sort of musical stenography that seems to focus on gestures and tone-movements but not the specific pitches of individual notes, nor the relative starting pitches of each neume. Given the fact that Chant was learned in an oral tradition in which the texts and melodies were sung from memory, this was obviously not necessary. The neumatic manuscripts display great sophistication and precision in notation and a wealth of graphic signs to indicate the musical gesture and proper pronunciation of the text.<br />
Scholars postulate that this practice may have been derived from [[cheironomy|cheironomic]] hand-gestures, the [[ekphonetic]] notation of [[Byzantine chant]], punctuation marks, or diacritical accents.<ref>Levy, Kenneth: "Plainchant", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 20&nbsp;January&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.40099.2.3#music.40099.2.3 (subscription access)]</ref> Later adaptations and innovations included the use of a dry-scratched line or an inked line or two lines, marked C or F showing the relative pitches between neumes. Consistent relative heightening first developed in the Aquitaine region, particularly at [[Saint Martial|St. Martial de Limoges]], in the first half of the eleventh century. Many German-speaking areas, however, continued to use unpitched neumes into the twelfth century. Additional symbols developed, such as the ''custos'', placed at the end of a system to show the next pitch. Other symbols indicated changes in articulation, duration, or tempo, such as a letter "t" to indicate a [[tenuto]]. Another form of early notation used a system of letters corresponding to different pitches, much as [[Shaker music]] is notated.<br />
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[[Image:gregorian chant.gif|frame|270px|right|The ''Liber usualis'' uses square notation, as in this excerpt from the ''Kyrie eleison (Orbis factor)''.]]By the 13th century, the neumes of Gregorian chant were usually written in ''square notation'' on a four-line staff with a clef, as in the ''Graduale Aboense'' pictured above. In square notation, small groups of ascending notes on a syllable are shown as stacked squares, read from bottom to top, while descending notes are written with diamonds read from left to right. When a syllable has a large number of notes, a series of smaller such groups of neumes are written in succession, read from left to right. The oriscus, quilisma, and liquescent neumes indicate special vocal treatments, that have been largely neglected due to uncertainty as to how to sing them. Since the 1970s, with the influential insights of [[Dom. E. Cardine]] (see below under 'rhythm'), ornamental neumes have received more attention from both researchers and performers.<br />
B-flat is indicated by a "b-mollum" (Lat. soft), a rounded undercaste 'b' placed to the left of the entire neume in which the note occurs, as shown in the "Kyrie" to the right. When necessary, a "b-durum" (Lat. hard), written squarely, indicates B-natural and serves to cancel the b-mollum . This system of square notation is standard in modern chantbooks.<br />
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==Performance==<br />
===Texture===<br />
Chant was traditionally reserved for men, as it was originally sung by the all-male clergy during the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and the prayers of the [[Canonical hours|Office]]. Outside the larger cities, the number of available clergy dropped, and lay men started singing these parts. In [[convent]]s, women were permitted to sing the Mass and Office as a function of their consecrated life, but the choir was still considered an official liturgical duty reserved to clergy, so lay women were not allowed to sing in the ''[[Schola Cantorum (disambiguation)|Schola Cantorum]]'' or other choirs.<ref>Carol Neuls-Bates, ''Women in Music'' p. 3.</ref><br />
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Chant was normally sung in unison. Later innovations included ''[[Trope (music)|tropes]]'', which is a new text sung to the same melodic phrases in a melismatic chant (repeating an entire Alleluia-melody on a new text for instance, or repeating a full phrase with a new text that comments on the previously sung text) and various forms of ''[[organum]]'', (improvised) harmonic embellishment of chant melodies focusing on octaves, fifths, fourths, and, later, thirds. Neither tropes nor organum, however, belong to the chant repertory proper. The main exception to this is the sequence, whose origins lay in troping the extended [[melisma]] of [[Alleluia]] chants known as the [[jubilus]], but the sequences, like the tropes, were later officially suppressed. The [[Council of Trent]] struck sequences from the Gregorian corpus, except those for [[Easter]], [[Pentecost]], [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] and [[All Souls' Day]].<br />
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Not much is known about the particular vocal stylings or performance practices used for Gregorian chant in the Middle Ages. On occasion, the clergy was urged to have their singers perform with more restraint and piety. This suggests that virtuosic performances occurred, contrary to the modern stereotype of Gregorian chant as slow-moving mood music. This tension between musicality and piety goes far back; [[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]] himself criticized the practice of promoting clerics based on their charming singing rather than their preaching.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 504.</ref> However, [[Odo of Cluny]], a renowned monastic reformer, praised the intellectual and musical virtuosity to be found in chant:<br />
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{{cquote|For in these [Offertories and Communions] there are the most varied kinds of ascent, descent, repeat..., delight for the ''cognoscenti'', difficulty for the beginners, and an admirable organization... that widely differs from other chants; they are not so much made according to the rules of music... but rather evince the authority and validity... of music.<ref>Apel, p. 312.</ref>}}<br />
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True antiphonal performance by two alternating choruses still occurs, as in certain German monasteries. However, antiphonal chants are generally performed in responsorial style by a solo cantor alternating with a chorus. This practice appears to have begun in the Middle Ages.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 197.</ref> Another medieval innovation had the solo cantor sing the opening words of responsorial chants, with the full chorus finishing the end of the opening phrase. This innovation allowed the soloist to fix the pitch of the chant for the chorus and to cue the choral entrance.<br />
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===Rhythm===<br />
Because of the obviously evasive quality of medieval notation as the silent remains of a living tradition, displaced a thousand years out of its cultural context, rhythm in Gregorian chant has always been a hotbed of debate among scholars. From the very beginning there was a fundamental difference in point of view on rhythm. To complicate matters further, a host of ornamental neumes are used in the earliest manuscripts that pose many difficulties on the rhythmic plane. Certain neumes such as the ''pressus'', pes quassus, strophic neumes indicate repeated notes, which may indicate lengthening by repercussion, in some cases with added ornaments. By the 13th century, with the widespread use of square notation, most chant was sung with an approximately equal duration allotted to each note, although [[Jerome of Moravia]] cites exceptions in which certain notes, such as the final notes of a chant, are lengthened.<ref>Hiley, "Chant", ''Performance Practice: Music before 1600'' p. 44. "The performance of chant in equal note lengths from the 13th century onwards is well supported by contemporary statements."</ref> <br />
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While the standard repertory of Gregorian Chant was partly being supplanted with new forms of polyphony, the earlier melo-rhythmic refinements of monophonic chant seem to fall into disuse. Later redactions such as the ''Editio medicaea'' of 1614 rewrote chant so that melismas, with their melodic accent, fell on accented syllables.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 289.</ref> This aesthetic held sway until the re-examination of chant in the late 19th century by such scholars as Wagner, [[Joseph Pothier|Pothier]], and [[André Mocquereau|Mocquereau]], who fell into two camps.<br />
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One school of thought, including Wagner, Jammers, and Lipphardt, advocated imposing rhythmic meters on chants, although they disagreed on how that should be done. An opposing interpretation, represented by Pothier and Mocquereau, supported a free rhythm of equal note values, although some notes are lengthened for textual emphasis or musical effect. The modern Solesmes editions of Gregorian chant follow this interpretation. Mocquereau divided melodies into two- and three-note phrases, each beginning with an ''ictus'', akin to a beat, notated in chantbooks as a small vertical mark. These basic melodic units combined into larger phrases through a complex system expressed by [[cheironomy|cheironomic]] hand-gestures.<ref>Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 127.</ref> This approach prevailed during the twentieth century, propagated by [[Justine Ward]]'s program of music education for children, until the liturgical role of chant was diminished after the liturgical reforms of [[Paul VI]], and new scholarship "essentially discredited" Mocquereau's rhythmic theories.<ref>Dyer, Joseph: "Roman Catholic Church Music", Section VI.1, [http://www.grovemusic.com/ Grove Music Online] ed. L. Macy (Accessed 28&nbsp;June&nbsp;2006), (subscription access)</ref><br />
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Common modern practice favors performing Gregorian chant with no beat or regular metric accent, largely for aesthetic reasons.<ref>William P. Mahrt, "Chant", ''A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music'' p. 18.</ref> The text determines the accent while the melodic contour determines the [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]]. The note lengthenings recommended by the Solesmes school remain influential, though not prescriptive.<br />
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Dom Eugene Cardine, (1905–1988) monk from Solesmes, published his 'Semiologie Gregorienne' in 1970 in which he clearly explains the musical significance of the neumes of the early chant manuscripts. Cardine shows the great diversity of neumes and graphic variations of the basic shape of a particular neume, which can not be expressed in the square notation. This variety in notation must have served a practical purpose and therefore a musical significance. Nine years later, the Graduale Triplex was published, in which the Roman Gradual, containing all the chants for Mass in a Year's cycle, appeared with the neumes of the two most important manuscripts copied under and over the 4-line staff of the square notation. The Graduale Triplex made widely accessible the original notation of Sankt Gallen and Laon (compiled after 930 AD) in a single chantbook and was a huge step forward. Dom Cardine had many students who have each in their own way continued their semiological studies, some of whom also started experimenting in applying the newly understood principles in performance practice.<br />
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The studies of Cardine and his students (Godehard Joppich, Luigi Augustoni, Marie-Noël Colette, Rupert Fischer, Marie-Claire Billecocq to name a few) have clearly demonstrated that rhythm in Gregorian chant as notated in the 10th century rhythmic manuscripts (notably Skt. Gallen and Laon) manifest such rhythmic diversity and melodic – rhythmic ornamentations for which there is hardly a living performance tradition in the Western world. Contemporary groups that endeavour to sing according to the manuscript traditions have evolved after 1975. Some practising researchers favour a closer look at non Western (liturgical) traditions, in such cultures where the tradition of modal monophony was never abandoned.<br />
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Another group with different views are the mensuralists or the proportionalists, who maintain that rhythm has to be interpreted proportionately, where shorts are exactly half the longs. This view is advocated by John Blackley and his 'Schola Antiqua New York'.<br />
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Recent research in the Netherlands by Dr. Dirk van Kampen has indicated that the authentic rhythm of Gregorian chant in the 10th century includes both proportional elements and elements that are in agreement with semiology.<ref>Dirk van Kampen (1994). ''Het oorspronkelijke ritme van het Gregoriaans: Een ‘semiologisch-mensuralistische’ studie''. Landsmeer, ISBN 90-9007428-7.</ref><ref>Dirk van Kampen (2005). Uitgangspunten voor de ritmiek van Gregoriaans. ''Tijdschrift voor Gregoriaans'', 30, 89-94.</ref><ref>Gregoriaans ritme. Dutch Wikipedia contribution by Dr. Dirk van Kampen.</ref> Starting with the expectation that the rhythm of Gregorian chant (and thus the duration of the individual notes) anyway adds to the expressivity of the sacred Latin texts, several word-related variables were studied for their relationship with several neume-related variables, exploring these relationships in a sample of introit chants using such statistical methods as correlational analysis and multiple regression analysis. <br />
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Besides the length of the syllables (measured in tenths of seconds), each text syllable was evaluated in terms of its position within the word to which it belongs, defining such variables as ‘the syllable has or hasn’t the main accent’, ‘the syllable is or isn’t at the end of a word’, etc., and in terms of the particular sounds produced (for instance, the syllable contains the vowel ‘i’). The various neume elements were evaluated by attaching different duration values to them, both in terms of semiological propositions (nuanced durations according to the manner of neume writing in Chris Hakkennes’ Graduale Lagal) <ref>Chris Hakkennes (1984). ''Graduale Lagal''. Den Haag: Stichting Centrum voor de Kerkzang.</ref>), and in terms of fixed duration values that were based on mensuralistic notions, however with ratios between short and long notes ranging from 1 : 1, via 1 : 1.2, 1 : 1.4, etc. to 1 : 3. To distinguish short and long notes, tables were consulted that were established by Van Kampen in an unpublished comparative study regarding the neume notations according to St Gallen and Laon codices. With some exceptions, these tables confirm the short vs. long distinctions in Cardine’s 'Semiologie Gregorienne'. <br />
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The lengths of the neumes were given values by adding up the duration values for the separate neume elements, each time following a particular hypothesis concerning the rhythm of Gregoriant chant. Both the syllable lengths and the neume lengths were also expressed in relation to the total duration of the syllables, resp. neumes for a word (contextual variables). Correlating the various word and neume variables, substantial correlations were found for the word variables 'accented syllable' and 'contextual syllable duration'. Moreover, it could be established that the multiple correlation (''R'') between the two types of variables reaches its maximum (''R'' is about 0.80) if the neumatic elements are evaluated according to the following ‘rules of duration’: (a) neume elements that represent short notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 1 time; (b) neume elements that represent long notes in neumes consisting of at least two notes have duration values of 2 times; (c) neumes consisting of only one note are characterized by flexible duration values (with an average value of 2 times), which take over the duration values of the syllables to match. <br />
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It is interesting that the distinction between the first two rules and the latter rule can also be found in early treatises on music, introducing the terms ''metrum'' and ''rhythmus''.<ref>Peter Wagner (1916). Zur ursprünglichen Ausführung des Gregorianischen Gesanges. ''Gregoriusblatt'', 81-82.</ref><ref>J. Jeannin (1930). Proportionale Dauerwerte oder einfache Schattierungen im Gregorianischen Choral? ''Gregoriusblatt'', 54, 129-135.</ref> As it could also be demonstrated by Van Kampen that melodic peaks often coincide with the word accent (see also),<ref>G. Reese (1940). ''Music in the Middle Ages''. New York: Norton & Comp., p. 166.</ref> the conclusion seems warranted that the Gregorian melodies enhance the expressiveness of the Latin words by mimicking to some extent both the accentuation of the sacred words (pitch differences between neumes) and the relative duration of the word syllables (by paying attention to well-defined length differences between the individual notes of a neume).<br />
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===Melodic restitution===<br />
{{Unreferenced|section|date=October 2010}}<br />
Recent developments involve an intensifying of the semiological approach according to Dom Cardine, which also gave a new impetus to the research into melodic variants in various manuscripts of chant. On the basis of this ongoing research it has become obvious that the Graduale and other chantbooks contain many melodic errors, some very consistently, (the mis-interpretation of third and eighth mode) necessitating a new edition of the Graduale according to state-of-the-art [[melodic restitution]]s. The so-called Munsterschwarzach-group under the guidance of Godehard Joppich and various other groups and individuals have done extensive work in this field. <br />
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In this approach the so-called earlier 'rhythmic' manuscripts of unheightened neumes that carry a wealth of melo-rhythmic information but not of exact pitches, are compared in large tables of comparison with relevant later 'melodic' manuscripts' that are written on lines or use double alphabetic and neumes notation over the text, but as a rule have less rhythmic refinement compared to the earlier group. However, the comparison between the two groups has made it possible to correct what are obvious mistakes. In other instances it is not so easy to find a consensus. In 1984 Chris Hakkennes published his own transcription of the Graduale Triplex. He devised a new graphic adaptation of square notation 'simplex' in which he integrated the rhythmic indications of the two most relevant sources, that of Laon and Skt. Gallen. <br />
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Referring to these manuscripts, he called his own transcription Gradual Lagal. Furthermore, while making the transcription, he cross-checked with the melodic manuscripts to correct modal errors or other melodic errors found in the Graduale Romanum. His intention was to provide a corrected melody in rhythmic notation but above all – he was also a choirmaster – suited for practical use, therefore a simplex, integrated notation. Although fully admitting the importance of Hakkennes' melodic revisions, the rhythmical solution suggested in the Graduale Lagal was actually found by Van Kampen (see above) to be rather modestly related to the text of the chant.<br />
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==Liturgical functions==<br />
Gregorian chant is sung in the Office during the [[canonical hours]] and in the liturgy of the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]. Texts known as ''[[Accentus Ecclesiasticus|accentus]]'' are intoned by bishops, priests, and deacons, mostly on a single [[reciting tone]] with simple melodic formulae at certain places in each sentence. More complex chants are sung by trained soloists and choirs. The most complete collection of chants is the ''[[Liber usualis]]'', which contains the chants for the [[Tridentine Mass]] and the most commonly used Office chants. Outside of monasteries, the more compact ''[[Graduale Romanum]]'' is commonly used.<br />
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===Proper chants of the Mass===<br />
The Introit, Gradual, Alleluia, Tract, Sequence, Offertory and Communion chants are part of the [[Proper (liturgy)|Proper]] of the Mass. "Proprium Missae" in Latin refers to the chants of the Mass that have their proper individual texts for each Sunday throughout the annual cycle. As opposed to 'Ordinarium Missae' which have fixed texts (but various melodies) (Kyrie, Benedictus, Sanctus, Agnus Dei).<br />
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[[Introit]]s cover the procession of the officiants. Introits are antiphonal chants, typically consisting of an antiphon, a psalm verse, a repeat of the antiphon, an intonation of the Gloria Patri [[Doxology]], and a final repeat of the antiphon. [[Reciting tone]]s often dominate their melodic structures.<br />
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[[Gradual]]s are responsorial chants that follow the reading of the [[Epistle]]. Graduals usually result from ''[[centonization]]''; stock musical phrases are assembled like a patchwork to create the full melody of the chant, creating families of musically related melodies. Graduals are accompanied by a elaborate Verse, so that it actually consists in two different parts, A B. Often the first part is sung again, creating a 'rondeau' A B A. At least the verse, if not the complete gradual, is for the solo cantor and are in elaborate, ornate style with long, wide-ranged melisma's.<br />
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The [[Alleluia]] is known for the ''[[jubilus]]'', an extended joyful melisma on the last vowel of 'Alleluia'. The Alleluia is also in two parts, the alleluia proper and the psalmverse, by which the Alleluia is identified (Alleluia V. Pascha nostrum) . The last melism of the verse is the same as the jubilus attached to the Alleluia. Alleluias are not sung during penitential times, such as [[Lent]]. Instead, a [[Tract (liturgy)|Tract]] is chanted, usually with texts from the Psalms. Tracts, like Graduals, are highly centonized.<br />
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[[Sequence (poetry)|Sequences]] are sung poems based on couplets. Although many sequences are not part of the liturgy and thus not part of the Gregorian repertory proper, Gregorian sequences include such well-known chants as ''[[Victimae paschali laudes]]'' and ''[[Veni Sancte Spiritus]]''. According to [[Notker Balbulus]], an early sequence writer, their origins lie in the addition of words to the long [[melisma]]s of the jubilus of Alleluia chants.<ref>Richard Crocker, ''The Early Medieval Sequence'' pp. 1–2.</ref><br />
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[[Offertory|Offertories]] are sung during the offering of Eucharistic bread and wine. Offertories once had highly prolix melodies in their verses, but the use of verses in Gregorian Offertories disappeared around the 12th century. These verses however, are among the most ornate and elaborated in the whole chant repertoire. Offertories are in form closest to Responsories, which are likewise accompanied by at least one Verse and the opening sections of both Off. and Resp. are partly repeated after the verse(s). This last section is therefore called the 'repetenda' and is in performance the last melodic line of the chant.<br />
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[[Communion (chant)|Communions]] are sung during the distribution of the [[eucharist (Catholic Church)|Eucharist]]. In presentation the Communio is similar to the Introitus, an antiphon with a series of psalm verses. Communion melodies are often tonally ambiguous and do not fit into a single [[musical mode]] which has led to the same communio being classed in different modes in different manuscripts or editions.<br />
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===Ordinary chants of the Mass===<br />
The Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus and Agnus Dei use the same text in every service of the Mass. Because they follow the regular invariable "order" of the Mass, these chants are called "[[Ordinary of the Mass|Ordinary]]".<br />
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The [[Kyrie]] consists of a threefold repetition of "Kyrie eleison" ("Lord, have mercy"), a threefold repetition of "Christe eleison" ("Christ have mercy"), followed by another threefold repetition of "Kyrie eleison." In older chants, "Kyrie eleison imas" ("Lord, have mercy on us") can be found. The Kyrie is distinguished by its use of the [[Hellenistic Greek|Greek language]] instead of Latin. Because of the textual repetition, various musical repeat structures occur in these chants. The following, Kyrie ad. lib. VI as transmitted in a Cambrai manuscript, uses the form ABA CDC EFE', with shifts in [[tessitura]] between sections. The E' section, on the final "Kyrie eleison", itself has an aa'b structure, contributing to the sense of climax.<ref>Hiley, ''Western Plainchant'' p. 153.</ref>{{listen|filename=Kyrie 55, Vatican ad lib. VI, Cambrai.ogg|title=Kyrie 55, Vatican ad lib. VI, from Cambrai, Bibl. Mun. 61, fo.155v, as transcribed by David Hiley|description=example of musical repeat structures in Gregorian chant}}<br />
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The [[Gloria in excelsis Deo|Gloria]] recites the Greater [[Doxology]], and the [[Credo]] intones the [[Nicene Creed]]. Because of the length of these texts, these chants often break into musical subsections corresponding with textual breaks. Because the Credo was the last Ordinary chant to be added to the Mass, there are relatively few Credo melodies in the Gregorian corpus.<br />
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The [[Sanctus]] and the [[Agnus Dei]], like the Kyrie, also contain repeated texts, which their musical structures often exploit.<br />
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Technically, the [[Ite missa est]] and the [[Benedicamus Domino]], which conclude the Mass, belong to the Ordinary. They have their own Gregorian melodies, but because they are short and simple, and have rarely been the subject of later musical composition, they are often omitted in discussion.<br />
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[[Image:Salve Regina.png|thumb|left|Plainchant notation for the solemn setting of the [[Salve Regina]]. A simple setting is used more commonly.]]<br />
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===Chants of the Office===<br />
Gregorian chant is sung in the [[canonical hours]] of the [[monastic]] Office, primarily in antiphons used to sing the [[Psalms]], in the Great [[Responsory|Responsories]] of [[Matins]], and the Short Responsories of the Lesser Hours and [[Compline]]. The psalm antiphons of the Office tend to be short and simple, especially compared to the complex Great Responsories.<br />
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At the close of the Office, one of four ''[[Marian antiphon]]s'' is sung. These songs, ''Alma Redemptoris Mater'' (see top of article), ''Ave Regina caelorum'', ''Regina caeli laetare'', and ''Salve, Regina'', are relatively late chants, dating to the 11th century, and considerably more complex than most Office antiphons. Apel has described these four songs as "among the most beautiful creations of the late Middle Ages."<ref>Willi Apel, ''Gregorian Chant'' p. 404.</ref><br />
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{{listen|filename=Alma Redemptoris Mater.ogg|title=Alma Redemptoris Mater|description=Marian antiphon sung at Compline and Lauds between the First Sunday of Advent and Candlemas|format=[[Ogg]]}}<br />
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==Influence==<br />
===Medieval and Renaissance music===<br />
Gregorian chant had a significant impact on the development of [[medieval music|medieval]] and [[Renaissance music]]. Modern staff notation developed directly from Gregorian neumes. The square notation that had been devised for plainchant was borrowed and adapted for other kinds of music. Certain groupings of neumes were used to indicate repeating rhythms called [[rhythmic mode]]s. Rounded noteheads increasingly replaced the older squares and lozenges in the 15th and 16th centuries, although chantbooks conservatively maintained the square notation. By the 16th century, the fifth line added to the [[staff (music)|musical staff]] had become standard. The [[Clef#Bass clef|bass clef]] and the [[Flat (music)|flat]], [[Natural sign|natural]], and [[sharp (music)|sharp]] accidentals derived directly from Gregorian notation.<ref>Chew, Geoffrey and Richard Rastall: "Notation", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 27&nbsp;June&nbsp;2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com/ (subscription access)]</ref><br />
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Gregorian melodies provided musical material and served as models for tropes and [[liturgical drama]]s. Vernacular hymns such as "Christ ist erstanden" and "Nun bitten wir den heiligen Geist" adapted original Gregorian melodies to translated texts. Secular tunes such as the popular Renaissance "[[In Nomine]]" were based on Gregorian melodies. Beginning with the improvised harmonizations of Gregorian chant known as [[organum]], Gregorian chants became a driving force in medieval and Renaissance [[polyphony]]. Often, a Gregorian chant (sometimes in modified form) would be used as a ''[[cantus firmus]]'', so that the consecutive notes of the chant determined the harmonic progression. The Marian antiphons, especially ''Alma Redemptoris Mater'', were frequently arranged by Renaissance composers. The use of chant as a cantus firmus was the predominant practice until the [[Baroque]] period, when the stronger harmonic progressions made possible by an independent bass line became standard.<br />
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The Catholic Church later allowed polyphonic arrangements to replace the Gregorian chant of the Ordinary of the Mass. This is why the Mass as a compositional form, as set by composers like [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]] or [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], features a Kyrie but not an Introit. The Propers may also be replaced by choral settings on certain solemn occasions. Among the composers who most frequently wrote polyphonic settings of the Propers were [[William Byrd]] and [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]]. These polyphonic arrangements usually incorporate elements of the original chant.<br />
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===20th century===<br />
The renewed interest in [[early music]] in the late 19th century left its mark on 20th-century music. Gregorian influences in classical music include the choral setting of four chants in "Quatre motets sur des thèmes Grégoriens" by [[Maurice Duruflé]], the carols of [[Peter Maxwell Davies]], and the choral work of [[Arvo Pärt]]. Gregorian chant has been incorporated into other genres, such as [[London Boys]]'s "Requiem" and some other dance compositions, [[Enigma (musical project)|Enigma's]] "[[Sadeness (Part I)]]", the chant interpretation of pop and rock by the German band [[Gregorian (band)|Gregorian]], the New age project [[Era (musical project)|Era]], the [[techno]] project [[E Nomine]], many of the songs by American Power/Thrash metal band [[Iced Earth]], and the work of [[black metal]] band [[Deathspell Omega]]. The modal melodies of chant provide unusual sounds to ears attuned to modern scales. It has also been used in [[The Omen]]'s main theme, [[Ave Satani]].<br />
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====Popular culture====<br />
The monks of Solesmes, discussed above for their revival of Gregorian chant, issued a number of recordings. However, when Gregorian chant as plainchant experienced a popular resurgence during the [[New Age music]] and [[world music]] movements of the 1980s and '90s, the iconic album was somewhat unexpectedly ''[[Chant (album)|Chant]]'', recorded by the [[Benedictine]] monks of [[Silos Abbey|Santo Domingo de Silos]], Spain. This was marketed as music to inspire timeless calm and serenity. In 2008, the Cistercian Monks of Austrian [[Heiligenkreuz Abbey]] released the CD ''Chant – Music for Paradise'', which became the best-selling album of the Austrian pop charts and peaked #7 of the UK charts. In the USA, the album was released under the title ''Chant – Music for the Soul'' and peaked at #1 on the [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] classical charts.<ref>[http://www.universalmusicclassical.com/artist/detail.aspx?nid=3599&aid=96884 Universal news]{{dead link|date=January 2011}}. Retrieved 24 April 2009.</ref><br />
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It became [[conventional wisdom]] that listening to Gregorian chant increased the production of [[alpha wave]]s in the brain, reinforcing the popular reputation of Gregorian chant as tranquilizing music.<ref>Le Mée, ''Chant : The Origins, Form, Practice, and Healing Power of Gregorian Chant'' p. 140.</ref> Gregorian chant has often been parodied for its supposed monotony, both before and after the release of ''Chant''. Famous references include the flagellant monks in ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' intoning "Pie Jesu Domine dona eis requiem" (Good Lord Jesus, grant them rest). Gregorian chanting has been also used in ''[[Vision of Escaflowne]]'' and ''[[Death Note]]'' anime series, Disney's [[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1996 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]] the theme of the Temple of Time in the [[Legend of Zelda]] series and the [[Halo (series)|Halo]] series of videogames.<br />
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==Miscellaneous==<br />
The [[asteroid]] [[100019 Gregorianik]] is [[Meanings of asteroid names|named in its honour]], using the German short form of the term.<br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Cecilian Movement]]<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
*''Graduale triplex'' (1979). Tournai: Desclée& Socii. ISBN 2-85274-094-X<br />
* ''Graduale Lagal''' (1984 / 1990) Chris Hakkennes, Stichting Lagal Utrecht ISBN 90-800408-2-7<br />
* ''Liber usualis'' (1953). Tournai: Desclée& Socii.<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Apel<br />
| first = Willi<br />
| year = 1990<br />
| title = Gregorian Chant<br />
| publisher = Indiana University Press<br />
| location = Bloomington, Indiana<br />
| isbn = 0-253-20601-4}}<br />
* {{ws|"[[s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Gregorian chant|Gregorian chant]]" in the 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia''}}, article by H. Bewerung.<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Chew<br />
| first = Geoffrey<br />
| coauthors = Richard Rastall, David Hiley and Janka Szendrei<br />
| url =http://www.grovemusic.com<br />
| title = Notation<br />
| work = Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy<br />
| accessdate = 27 June 2006<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first=Richard |<br />
last=Crocker |<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title=The Early Medieval Sequence |<br />
publisher=University of California Press |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1977 |<br />
editor=|<br />
isbn=0-520-02847-3}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Dyer<br />
| first = Joseph<br />
| coauthors =<br />
| url =http://www.grovemusic.com<br />
| title = Roman Catholic Church Music<br />
| pages = Section VI.1<br />
| work = Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy<br />
| accessdate = 28 June 2006<br />
}}<br />
* Hiley, David (1990). Chant. In ''Performance Practice: Music before 1600'', Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley Sadie, eds., pp.&nbsp;37–54. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-02807-0<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first=David |<br />
last=Hiley |<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title=Western Plainchant: A Handbook |<br />
publisher=Clarendon Press |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1995 |<br />
editor=|<br />
isbn=0-19-816572-2}}<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first=Richard, ed. |<br />
last=Hoppin |<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title=Anthology of Medieval Music |<br />
publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1978 |<br />
editor=|<br />
isbn=0-393-09080-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first=Richard |<br />
last=Hoppin |<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title=Medieval Music |<br />
publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1978 |<br />
editor=|<br />
isbn=0-393-09090-6}}<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first= Katharine|<br />
last= Le Mée|<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title= Chant : The Origins, Form, Practice, and Healing Power of Gregorian Chant|<br />
publisher=Harmony|<br />
location= |<br />
year=1994 |<br />
editor= |<br />
isbn=0-517-70037-9}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Levy<br />
| first = Kenneth<br />
| coauthors =<br />
| url =http://www.grovemusic.com<br />
| title = Plainchant<br />
| pages = Section VI.1<br />
| work = Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy<br />
| accessdate = 20 January 2006<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
| last = Mahrt<br />
| first = William P<br />
| title = Gregorian Chant as a Paradigm of Sacred Music<br />
| journal = Sacred Music<br />
| volume = 133<br />
| issue = 3<br />
| pages = 5–14<br />
| url = http://www.musicasacra.com/publications/sacredmusic/133/1/1_1.html<br />
}}<br />
* Mahrt, William P. (2000). Chant. In ''A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music'', Ross Duffin, ed., pp.&nbsp;1–22. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33752-6<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first= James, ed.|<br />
last= McKinnon|<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title= Antiquity and the Middle Ages |<br />
publisher=Prentice Hall |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1990 |<br />
editor= |<br />
isbn=0-13-036153-4}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = McKinnon<br />
| first = James W<br />
| coauthors =<br />
| url =http://www.grovemusic.com<br />
| title = Christian Church, music of the early<br />
| work = Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy<br />
| accessdate = 11 July 2006<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Neuls-Bates<br />
| first = Carol, ed.<br />
| year = 1996<br />
| title = Women in Music<br />
| publisher = Northeastern University Press<br />
| location = Boston<br />
| isbn = 1-55553-240-3}}<br />
* {{cite web<br />
| last = Novum<br />
| first = Canticum<br />
| coauthors =<br />
| url =http://interletras.com/canticum/Eng/index1_Eng.html<br />
| title = Lessons on Gregorian Chant: Notation, characteristics, rhythm, modes, the psalmody and scores<br />
| accessdate = 11 July 2006<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book<br />
| last = Parrish<br />
| first = Carl<br />
| year = 1986<br />
| title = A Treasury of Early Music<br />
| publisher = Dover Publications, Inc.<br />
| location = Mineola, New York<br />
| isbn = 0-486-41088-9}}<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first= Ray, ed.|<br />
last= Robinson|<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title= Choral Music |<br />
publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1978 |<br />
editor= |<br />
isbn=0-393-09062-0}}<br />
* Wagner, Peter. (1911) ''Einführung in die Gregorianischen Melodien. Ein Handbuch der Choralwissenschaft''. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel.<br />
* {{cite journal<br />
| last = Ward<br />
| first = Justine<br />
|title = The Reform of Church Music<br />
| journal = Atlantic Monthly<br />
| month = April<br />
| year = 1906<br />
| url = http://www.musicasacra.com/publications/sacredmusic/pdf/ward.pdf<br />
|format = PDF<br />
}}<br />
* {{cite book |<br />
first=David |<br />
last=Wilson |<br />
coauthors= |<br />
title= Music of the Middle Ages |<br />
publisher=Schirmer Books |<br />
location= |<br />
year=1990 |<br />
editor=|<br />
isbn=0-02-872951-X}}<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.musique-sacree-notredamedeparis.fr/spip.php?article128 Gregorian chant at Notre-Dame de Paris]<br />
* [http://www.musique-liturgique.com/ Gregorian Chant CDs, MP3 files, videos, free scores. Sacra Musica ]<br />
* [http://www.globalchant.org/ GLOBAL CHANT DATABASE – Index of Gregorian Chant] – The largest searchable database of plainchant and sacred song melodies<br />
* [http://inchoro.net/ Gregorian Chants Online]<br />
* [http://www.solesmes.com/GB/livres/catalogue.php?js=1&par=JmNjPTg=#c8 A complete selection of Gregorian Chant books and CDs by the Monks of Solesmes France – considered the leading authority on Gregorian Chant scholarship and performance]<br />
* [http://abbayesprovencales.free.fr/gregorien.htm The Gregorian chant of the abbeys of Provence in France]<br />
* [http://chantgregorian.com/the-history-of-gregorian-chant/ The History of Gregorian Chant]<br />
* H. Bewerung: "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06779a.htm Gregorian chant]", ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]''<br />
* William P. Mahrt: "[http://www.musicasacra.com/publications/sacredmusic/133/1/1_1.html Gregorian Chant as a Paradigm of Sacred Music]", ''Sacred Music'', 133.3, pp.&nbsp;5–14<br />
* [http://interletras.com/canticum/Eng/index1_Eng.html Canticum Novum, Lessons on Gregorian Chant] – Notation, characteristics, rhythm, modes, the psalmody and scores<br />
* Justine Ward, "[http://www.musicasacra.com/publications/sacredmusic/pdf/ward.pdf The Reform of Church Music]", ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]'', April 1906<br />
* [http://gregorian.soft.free.fr/gregorian.html Monastic gregorian]<br />
* [http://www.gregor-und-taube.de/htm/materialien.htm Many chants from the Gradual in melodically restituted form]<br />
* [http://www.cesg.unifr.ch/ Website of Sankt Gallen / Cologne Library, access to Skt. Gallen manuscripts]<br />
* [http://www.cattoliciromani.com/forum/showthread.php/canto_ambrosiano-8898.html Ambrosian chant]<br />
* {{WIMA|idx=GregorianChant}}<br />
* {{ChoralWiki|prep=of}}<br />
* {{IMSLP|id=Gregorian Chant}}<br />
* [http://musicasacra.com/communio/ Most used chant books available as PDFs]<br />
* [http://www.gregorianchant.org/ Gregorian Chant Resources]<br />
* [http://sites.google.com/site/gregorianicantus/Home Gregoriani Cantus. Gregorian Chant Free Fonts under Creative Commons License (Spanish)]<br />
* [http://www.transitofvenus.nl/LiturgiaHorarum Liturgia Horarum in cantu Gregoriano] Online Gregorian chant for the Liturgy of the Hours<br />
* [http://www.gregorian-chant.info/ Gregorian Chant Info] Neumes in square notation and recordings (mainly propers of the Mass)<br />
* [http://www.scholacatharina.nl/code/Agenda.php Recordings from the Netherlands]<br />
* [http://www.dovesong.com/MP3/MP3_Chant.asp Collection of MP3s]<br />
*''Discography'' For a selective discography visit [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/cds/search.cgi?q=gregorian+chant CD search results] by Todd McComb<br />
{{Catholicism||collapsed}}<br />
{{Roman Catholic Theology||collapsed}}<br />
{{History of the Catholic Church|uncollapsed}}<br />
{{Medieval music}}<br />
{{Chant}}<br />
{{Mass}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gregorian Chant}}<br />
[[Category:Catholic music]]<br />
[[Category:Chants]]<br />
[[Category:Christian music formats]]<br />
[[Category:Structure of the Mass]]<br />
[[Category:Tridentine Mass]]<br />
<br />
[[an:Cante gregoriano]]<br />
[[be-x-old:Грэгарыянскі сьпеў]]<br />
[[bg:Грегорианско песнопение]]<br />
[[ca:Cant gregorià]]<br />
[[cs:Gregoriánský chorál]]<br />
[[da:Gregoriansk sang]]<br />
[[de:Gregorianischer Choral]]<br />
[[et:Gregoriuse koraal]]<br />
[[el:Γρηγοριανό μέλος]]<br />
[[es:Canto gregoriano]]<br />
[[eo:Gregoria ĉanto]]<br />
[[eu:Kantu gregorianoa]]<br />
[[fr:Chant grégorien]]<br />
[[gl:Canto gregoriano]]<br />
[[ko:그레고리오 성가]]<br />
[[id:Kidung Gregorian]]<br />
[[it:Canto gregoriano]]<br />
[[he:מזמור גרגוריאני]]<br />
[[la:Cantus Gregorianus]]<br />
[[lv:Gregoriāņu dziedājums]]<br />
[[lt:Grigališkasis choralas]]<br />
[[hu:Gregorián ének]]<br />
[[nl:Gregoriaanse muziek]]<br />
[[ja:グレゴリオ聖歌]]<br />
[[no:Gregoriansk sang]]<br />
[[pl:Chorał gregoriański]]<br />
[[pt:Canto gregoriano]]<br />
[[ro:Muzică gregoriană]]<br />
[[ru:Григорианское пение]]<br />
[[simple:Gregorian chant]]<br />
[[sk:Gregoriánsky chorál]]<br />
[[sl:Gregorijanski koral]]<br />
[[fi:Gregoriaaninen kirkkolaulu]]<br />
[[sv:Gregoriansk sång]]<br />
[[uk:Григоріанський спів]]<br />
[[vi:Thánh ca Gregory]]<br />
[[zh:额我略平咏]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_Music&diff=97760Church Music2011-02-06T15:12:35Z<p>Orthophil: /* Types */</p>
<hr />
<div>In the Orthodox Church, '''music''' is a vital component of worship in the divine services.<br />
<br />
{{stub}}<br />
<br />
<br />
==Types==<br />
*[[Byzantine Chant]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant]]<br />
**[[Romanian Chant]]<br />
**[[Serbian Chant]]<br />
*[[Old Roman Chant]]<br />
*[[Carpatho-Russian Chant]]<br />
*[[Galician Chant]]<br />
*[[Georgian Chant]]<br />
*[[Gregorian Chant]]<br />
**[[Ambrosian Chant]]<br />
**[[Mozarabic Chant]]<br />
*[[Russian Chant]]<br />
**[[Bakhmetev Obikhod]]<br />
**[[Bulgarian Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Greek Chant (Russian)]]<br />
**[[Kievan Chant]]<br />
**[[Old Simonov Chant]]<br />
**[[Valaam Chant]]<br />
**[[Znamenny Chant]]<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Octoechos]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.orthodox-jp.com/maria/English-index.htm Orthodox Church Singing in Japan]<br />
*[http://valaam.ru/en/mp3/ mp3 samples] from the [[monks]] of the [[Valaam Monastery]]<br />
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ga/riggs/Orthodox_Music/orthodox_music.html Orthodox sheet music]<br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Arts|Music]]<br />
[[Category:Church Music|*]]<br />
[[Category:Liturgics|Music]]<br />
<br />
[[ro:Muzica bisericească]]</div>Orthophilhttps://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Byzantine_Chant&diff=97759Byzantine Chant2011-02-06T15:10:54Z<p>Orthophil: </p>
<hr />
<div>Strictly speaking, '''Byzantine Chant''' is the sacred [[Church Music|chant]] of Christian Churches under jurisdiction of Constantinople. This tradition, encompassing the Greek-speaking world, developed in [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantium]] from the establishment of its capital, Constantinople, in 330 until [[Fall of Constantinople|its fall]] in 1453. It is undeniably of composite origin, drawing on the artistic and technical productions of the classical age, on [[Judaism|Jewish]] music, and inspired by the monophonic vocal music that evolved in the early Christian cities of Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus. In the [[Orthodox Church]] today, many churches use [[Byzantine]] Chant as their primary musical tradition, including the Churches of [[Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], [[Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]], [[Church of Serbia|Serbia]], [[Church of Romania|Romania]], [[Church of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Church of Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Church of Greece|Greece]], and [[Church of Albania|Albania]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early Christian Period===<br />
Byzantine chant manuscripts date from the ninth century, while [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of biblical readings in [[Ekphonetic Notation]] (a primitive graphic system designed to indicate the manner of reciting lessons from Scripture) begin about a century earlier and continue in use until the twelfth or thirteenth century. Our knowledge of the older period is derived from Church service books [[Typikon|Typika]], [[Church Fathers|patristic]] writings and medieval histories. Scattered examples of [[hymn]] texts from the early centuries of Greek Christianity still exist. Some of these employ the metrical schemes of classical Greek poetry; but the change of pronunciation had rendered those meters largely meaningless, and, except when classical forms were imitated, Byzantine hymns of the following centuries are prose-poetry, unrhymed verses of irregular length and accentual patterns. The common term for a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas, is [[troparion]] (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between Psalm verses). A famous example, whose existence is attested as early as the fourth century, is the [[Vespers]] hymn, "''[[Phos Hilaron]]''" ("O Gladsome Light"); another, "''O Monogenes Yios''" ("Only Begotten Son"), ascribed to Emperor St. [[Justinian|Justinian the Great]] (r. 527-565), figures in the introductory portion of the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Perhaps the earliest set of troparia of known authorship are those of the [[monk]] Auxentios (first half of the fifth century), attested in his biography but not preserved in any later Byzantine order of service.<br />
<br />
===Medieval Period===<br />
Two concepts must be understood if we are to appreciate fully the function of music in Byzantine worship. The first, which retained currency in Greek theological and mystical speculation until the dissolution of the empire, was the belief in the [[angel]]ic transmission of sacred chant: the assumption that the early Church united men in the [[prayer]] of the angelic choirs. This notion is certainly older than the [[Apocalypse]] account ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 4:8-11), for the musical function of angels as conceived in the [[Old Testament]] is brought out clearly by [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] (6:1-4) and [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] (3:12). Most significant in the fact, outlined in [[Exodus]] 25, that the pattern for the earthly worship of [[Israel]] was derived from [[Heaven]]. The allusion is perpetuated in the writings of the early [[Church Fathers]], such as [[Clement of Rome]], [[Justin Martyr|Justin]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Athenagoras of Athens]], and [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. It receives acknowledgement later in the liturgical treatises of [[Nicholas Cabasilas]] and [[Symeon of Thessaloniki]] (''Patrologia Graeca'', CL, 368-492 and CLV, 536-699, respectively).<br />
<br />
The effect that this concept had on church music was threefold: first, it bred a highly conservative attitude to musical composition; second, it stabilized the melodic tradition of certain hymns; and third, it continued, for a time, the anonymity of the composer. For if a chant is of heavenly origin, then the acknowledgement received by man in transmitting it to posterity ought to be minimal. This is especially true when he deals with hymns which were believed to have been first sung by angelic choirs&mdash;such as the [[Amen]], [[Alleluia]], [[Trisagion]], [[Sanctus]], and [[Doxology]]. Consequently, until Palaeologan times, it was inconceivable for a composer to place his name beside a notated text in the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
Ideas of originality and free invention similar to those seen in later music probably never existed in early Byzantine times. The very notion of using traditional formulas (or melody-types) as a compositional technique shows an archaic concept in liturgical chant, and is quite the opposite of free, original creation. It seems evident that the chants of the Byzantine repertory found in musical manuscripts from the tenth century to the time of the [[Fourth Crusade]] (1204-1261), represent the final and only surviving stage of an evolution, the beginnings of which go back at least to the sixth century and possibly even to the chant of the [[Synagogue]]. What exact changes took place in the music during the formative stage is difficult to say; but certain chants in use even today exhibit characteristics which may throw light on the subject. These include recitation formulas, melody-types, and standard phrases that are clearly evident in the folk music and other traditional music of various cultures of the East, including the music of the Jews.<br />
<br />
The second, less permanent, concept was that of ''koinonia'' or "communion." This was less permanent because, after the fourth century, when it was analyzed and integrated into a theological system, the bond and "oneness" that united the [[clergy]] and the [[laity|faithful]] in liturgical worship was less potent. It is, however, one of the key ideas for understanding a number of realities for which we now have different names. With regard to musical performance, this concept of koinonia may be applied to the primitive use of the word choros. It referred, not to a separate group within the congregation entrusted with musical responsibilities, but to the [[congregation]] as a whole. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote to the Church in Ephesus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vi.ii.iii.i.html] in the following way:<br />
<br />
:"''You must every man of you join in a choir so that being harmonious and in concord and taking the keynote of God in unison, you may sing with one voice through [[Jesus Christ]] to the Father, so that He may hear you and through your good deeds recognize that you are parts of His Son.''"<br />
<br />
A marked feature of liturgical ceremony was the active part taken by the people in its performance, particularly in the recitation or chanting of hymns, responses, and psalms. The terms ''choros'', ''koinonia'', and ''ekklesia'' were used synonymously in the early Byzantine Church. In [[Psalms]] 149 and 150, the [[Septuagint]] translates the Hebrew word ''machol'' (dance) by the Greek word ''choros''. As a result, the early Church borrowed this word from classical antiquity as a designation for the congregation, at worship and in song, both in heaven and on earth. Before long, however, a clericalizing tendency soon began to manifest itself in linguistic usage, particularly after the [[Council of Laodicea]], whose fifteenth [[Canon Law|Canon]] permitted only the canonical ''psaltai'' ("[[chanter]]s") to sing at the services. The word ''choros'' came to refer to the special [[priest]]ly function in the [[Divine Liturgy|Liturgy]]&mdash;just as, architecturally speaking, the choir became a reserved area near the [[sanctuary]]&mdash;and ''choros'' eventually became the equivalent of the word ''kleros''.<br />
<br />
The development of large-scale [[hymnography|hymnographic]] forms begins in the fifth century with the rise of the kontakion, a long and elaborate metrical [[sermon]], reputedly of Syriac origin, which finds its acme in the work of St. [[Roman the Melodist|Romanos the Melodist]] (sixth century). This dramatic [[homily]], which usually paraphrases a [[Holy Scripture|Biblical]] narrative, comprises some 20 to 30 stanzas and was sung during the Morning Office ([[Orthros]]) in a simple and direct syllabic style (one note per syllable). The earliest musical versions, however, are "melismatic" (that is, many notes per syllable of text), and belong to the time of the ninth century and later when kontakia were reduced to the ''ptooimion'' (introductory verse) and first ''oikos'' (stanza). In the second half of the seventh century, the kontakion was supplanted by a new type of hymn, the [[canon|kanon]], initiated by St. [[Andrew of Crete]] (ca. 660-ca. 740) and developed by [[Saint]]s [[John of Damascus]] and [[Kosmas of Jerusalem]] (both eighth century). Essentially, the kanon is an hymnodic complex comprised of nine odes which were originally attached to the nine [[Biblical Odes|Biblical canticles]] and to which they were related by means of corresponding poetic allusion or textual quotation.<br />
<br />
The nine canticles are:<br />
<br />
* (1)-(2) The two songs of [[Moses]] ([[Exodus]] 15:1-19 and [[Deuteronomy]] 32:1-43);<br />
* (3)-(7) The prayers of [[Hannah]], [[Habakkuk]], [[Isaiah]], [[Jonah]], and the [[Three Holy Children]] ([[I Kingdoms|1 Samuel]] 2:1-10; [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 3:1-19; [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 26:9-20; [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] 2:3-10; [[Apocrypha|Apoc.]] [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:26-56);<br />
* (8) The [[Prayer of the Three Holy Children]] (Apoc. [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 3:57-88);<br />
* (9) The [[Magnificat]] and the Benedictus ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:46-55 and 68-79).<br />
<br />
Each ode consists of an initial troparion, the [[irmos|heirmos]], followed by three, four or more [[troparion|troparia]] which are the exact metrical reproductions of the heirmos, thereby allowing the same music to fit all troparia equally well.<br />
<br />
The nine heirmoi, however, are metrically dissimilar; consequently, an entire kanon comprises nine independent melodies (eight, when the second ode is omitted), which are united musically by the same mode and textually by references to the general theme of the liturgical occasion, and sometimes by an acrostic. Heirmoi in syllabic style are gathered in the ''[[Heirmologion]]'', a bulky volume which first appeared in the middle of the tenth century and contains over a thousand model troparia arranged into an [[oktoechos]] (the eight-mode musical system).<br />
<br />
Another kind of hymn, important both for its number and for the variety of its liturgical use, is the [[sticheron]]. [[Feast|Festal]] stichera, accompanying both the fixed psalms at the beginning and end of Vespers and the psalmody of the Lauds (the [[Ainoi]]) in the Morning Office, exist for all special days of the year, the [[Sunday]]s and weekdays of [[Great Lent|Lent]], and for the recurrent cycle of eight weeks in the order of the modes beginning with [[Pascha]]. Their melodies preserved in the ''[[Sticherarion]]'', are considerably more elaborate and varied than in the tradition of the ''Heirmologion''.<br />
<br />
===Later Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods===<br />
With the end of creative poetical composition, Byzantine chant entered its final period, devoted largely to the production of more elaborate musical settings of the traditional texts: either embellishments of the earlier simpler melodies, or original music in highly ornamental style. This was the work of the so-called ''Maistores'', "masters," of whom the most celebrated was St. [[John Koukouzeles]] (active ca. 1300), compared in Byzantine writings to St. John of Damascus himself, as an innovator in the development of chant. The multiplication of new settings and elaborations of the old continued in the centuries following the [[Fall of Constantinople]], until by the end of the eighteenth century the original musical repertory of the medieval musical manuscripts had been quite replaced by later compositions, and even the basic model system had undergone profound modification.<br />
<br />
[[Chrysanthos of Madytos]] (ca. 1770-1846), [[Gregory the Protopsaltes]], and [[Chourmouzios the Archivist]] were responsible for a much needed reform of the notation of Greek ecclesiastical music. Essentially, this work consisted of a simplification of the Byzantine musical symbols which, by the early 19th century, had become so complex and technical that only highly skilled chanters were able to interpret them correctly. Despite its numerous shortcomings the work of the three reformers is a landmark in the history of Greek Church music, since it introduced the system of neo-Byzantine music upon which are based the present-day chants of the Greek Orthodox Church.<br />
<br />
==General Information==<br />
<br />
The current usage of Byzantine chant is built upon eight modes (tones), each mode with its own specific tonality. The modes change sequentially from week to week, starting the Monday after the [[Sunday of St. Thomas]], with mode 1. Within [[Bright Week]] itself, the mode changes each day, thus: <br />
:Sunday – mode 1, <br />
:Monday – mode 2, <br />
:Tuesday – mode 3, <br />
:Wednesday – mode 4, <br />
:Thursday – mode plagal of the first (5), <br />
:Friday – mode plagal of the second (6), <br />
:Saturday – mode plagal of the fourth (8). <br />
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The grave mode (7) was chosen as the mode to be left out due to its heavier sound, considered least appropriate for the festal period among the eight modes. Since [[Pentecost]] falls on the Sunday when the grave mode would have been used in the normal sequence, the mode is once again skipped and the hymns of Pentecost are used. The sequence resumes the following week with plagal of the fourth.<br />
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In the time between a [[Great Feasts|great feast]] and its [[Leavetaking|leave-taking]], for example, during the week following Pentecost, the hymns of the feast are chanted rather than the hymns pertaining to the mode of the week.<br />
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===The scale===<br />
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The Byzantine chant scale consists of seven notes: Νη, Πα, Βου, Γα, Δι, Κε, Ζω. These notes, together with the repeated Νη, cover a span of one octave. Within that octave, the relative pitch of each note varies according to the mode or tone of the scale. Current Byzantine chant theory divides the octave into 72 intervals (moria). The Western tone (whole-step) thus consists of 12 moria, with the semi-tone (half-step) consisting of 6.<br />
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The position of the notes within the octave varies according to the mode (tone) in which a melody is chanted. Byzantine chant consists of eight basic modes, although several modes exhibit variations in the scale. The modes are grouped in three categories: natural, enharmonic, and chromatic.<br />
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===The diatonic modes===<br />
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These are numbered 1, 4, Plagal of the first (5), and Plagal of the fourth (8). The scale for these modes is very similar to the Western scale. The distances between notes is<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 10 || || 8 || || 12 || || 12 || || 10 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
Thus, this looks like the C major scale, with a slightly lowered third and seventh notes. The tonic (base note) for the four natural modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 1''': Πα, rendering it a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode 4''': Βου, Πα, or Δι, depending on the type of hymn chanted<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the first''': Πα or Κε, depending on the type of hymn chanted. This again has a tonality close to the Western minor scale<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the fourth''': Nη or Γα, depending on the type of hymn changed. The Nη-based variety renders a tonality close to the Western major scale.<br />
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===The enharmonic modes===<br />
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These are modes 3 and Grave (Βαρυς, Plagal of the third, 7). The scale for mode three is the Western major scale with a flat seventh:<br />
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{|<br />
| Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Nη<br />
|-<br />
| || 12 || || 12 || || 6 || || 12 || || 12 || || 12 || || 6 ||<br />
|}<br />
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The grave mode often uses the same scale as mode 3, but there are several variations proper to the mode. One of the most common is shown below:<br />
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{|<br />
| Ζω || || Nη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω ||<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 12 || || 10 || || 12 || || 8 || || 16 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
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The tonic of the enharmonic modes is:<br />
<br />
'''Mode 3''': Γα<br><br />
'''Grave Mode''': Γα, when using the scale of mode 3, Ζω otherwise.<br />
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===The chromatic modes===<br />
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These are modes 2 and Plagal of the second (6). The scales of these two modes are different. The scale for mode 2, known as the soft-chromatic scale, is:<br />
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{|<br />
| Νη || || Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη<br />
|-<br />
| || 8 || || 14 || || 8 || || 12 || || 8 || || 14 || || 8 ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
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Thus, properly speaking, the intervals between Δι and Κε on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other are 1/3 larger than a semi-tone, while the Κε-Ζω and Πα-Βου intervals are 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a tone.<br />
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The scale of Plagal of the second, known as the hard chromatic scale, is:<br />
<br />
{|<br />
| Πα || || Βου || || Γα || || Δι || || Κε || || Ζω || || Νη || || Πα<br />
|-<br />
| || 6 || || 20 || || 4 || || 12 || || 6 || || 20 || || 4 ||<br />
|}<br />
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Thus, the intervals between Βου and Γα on one hand and between Ζω and Νη on the other is 1/3 of a semi-tone larger than a minor third, and the Γα-Δι and Νη-Πα intervals are 2/3 of a semi-tone.<br />
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The tonic for the chromatic modes is:<br />
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'''Mode 2''': Δι<br><br />
'''Mode Plagal of the second''': Πα<br />
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It should be noted that there are many instances in which hymns in mode 2 will use the hard chromatic scale and hymns in plagal of the second will use the soft chromatic scale.<br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Byzantine Notation]]<br />
*[[Orthodox Media]]<br />
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== Sources ==<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Byzantine music]]<br />
*Original text (pre-Wikification) reproduced with permission from Dr. D. Conomos's [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7069.asp text] at the website of the [[Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]].<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://stanthonysmonastery.org/music/Index.html Divine Music Project] from [[St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery (Florence, Arizona)|St. Anthony's Greek Orthodox Monastery]] with an up-to-date list of Byzantine music links, recordings, articles, free font software, and more than 2000 pages of music in English and Greek in staff and Byzantine notation. <br />
*[http://www.0wned.org/~pavlos/ Byzantine Chant]<br />
*[http://chant.theologian.org/ Byzantine Chant Studies Page]<br />
*[http://www.liturgica.com/cart/recommend_byzantine.jsp Recommended Selections of Byzantine Chant for New, Intermediate, and Advanced Listeners]<br />
*[http://www.analogion.com/ Analogion] - an extensive, analytic site on most - if not all - facets of Byzantine chant.<br />
*[http://www.ieropsaltis.com/ Ieropsaltis] (Greek) - A site with individual tribute pages to different chanters in Greece<br />
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/Multimedia/Audio_index/audioindex_en.html Ecclesia] The chanting page of the official website of the Church of Greece<br />
*[http://www.kelfar.net/orthodoxiaradio/ Orthodoxia Radio] - Source for information and recordings of Byzantine chant as sung in the Church of Antioch<br />
*[http://www.jamilsamara.com/sacredmusic/music.asp Sacred Music (Orthodox Liturgical Music)] - Official Antiochian Archdiocese site for free music downloads, including many Byzantine chant<br />
*[http://chant.hchc.edu/ Learn Byzantine Chant] - A simplistic flash presentation from the [[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology (Brookline, Massachusetts)|Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]]<br />
*[http://www.byzantinechant.org/ Byzantine Chant Resources] - The homepage of the Byzantine Choir of St. George Antiochian Orthodox Cathedral in Pittsburgh, PA. There are many links for learning byzantine notation and for new and transcribed hymns in byzantine notation.<br />
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