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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Ge'ez, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
[[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, by the movement of the hands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
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However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
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Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
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In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
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Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
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The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
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Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
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The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
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The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
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==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124458Sign of the Cross2016-09-05T01:10:33Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Ge'ez, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
[[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, by the movement of the hands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124457Sign of the Cross2016-09-05T00:48:47Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Ge'ez, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
[[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, from the hands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
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==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124456Sign of the Cross2016-09-05T00:47:59Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
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==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Ge' ez Rite, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
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[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
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<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
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[[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, from the hands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
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Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
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In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124455Sign of the Cross2016-09-04T18:41:21Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Ge' ez Rite, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
[[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, from the lands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124454Sign of the Cross2016-09-04T18:14:18Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Ge' ez Rite, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Saints [[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, from the lands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124453Sign of the Cross2016-09-04T18:13:06Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, Ge'ez Rite, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Saints [[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, from the lands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=124452Sign of the Cross2016-09-04T18:11:15Z<p>Fatman2021: Source: The Domostroi: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible - October, 1995</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], [[Ge'ez Rite]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, Ge'ez Rite, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Saints [[Athanasius of Alexandria]](269-373 A.D.) and Peter of Damascus(12th Century), gave the following instructions:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
By the signing of the holy and life-giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, from the lands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope [[Leo IV of Rome]] who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the [[Moscow Sobor of 1666–1667|Council of 1666-1667]]:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=101710Sign of the Cross2011-07-18T16:47:45Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], [[Ge'ez Rite]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, Ge'ez Rite, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=101709Sign of the Cross2011-07-18T16:47:15Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], [[Ge'ez Rite]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, Ge'ez Rite, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=101708Sign of the Cross2011-07-18T16:46:35Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], [[Ge'ez Rite]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, Ge'ez Rite, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
Peter of Damascus (12th Century) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life-giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.<br />
<br />
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=98954Sign of the Cross2011-03-17T13:03:27Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], [[Ge'ez Rite]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, Ge'ez Rite, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=98953Sign of the Cross2011-03-17T13:01:42Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
[[<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], [[Geez Rite]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=98952Sign of the Cross2011-03-17T12:56:35Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], Geez Rite, and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=98951Sign of the Cross2011-03-17T12:55:31Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Coptic and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], Ge'ez Rite, and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
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The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
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Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
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In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
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In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
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In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
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In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
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The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
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Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
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The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
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==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
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The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
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==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=97713Old Believers2011-02-03T23:33:50Z<p>Fatman2021: /* External links */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
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In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
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Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
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Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
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== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Nikon of Moscow|Nikon]] (1605–1681; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [[anathema]]tized and suppressed with the support of Muscovite state power the prior liturgical rite itself as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as ''schismatics''. They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced during the reign of Empress Catherine the Great. At the same time they continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.<br />
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== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
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Although a portion of the population of Kievan Rus' (Ruthenia) was Christian by 944, Knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, Ruthenia took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
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== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
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In 1551, the [[Stoglavy Sobor|Moscow Stoglav Church Council]] declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. [[Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow|Patriarch Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under Tsar Alexis, the second of the Romanovs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Pat. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of 1667, attended by the Patriarch of Alexandria and the Patriarch of Antioch, with delegates from both the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the Patriarch of Constantinople, the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patriarch Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
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The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1558 Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
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Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the hallelujah should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Jesus Christ|Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the [[clergy]] of simony and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
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Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient Antiochian Patriarchate. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian Old Believers. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev]], the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was possibly of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, [[Nicodemus the Hagiorite|St. Nicodemus]], in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
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== Church Regulations ==<br />
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In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This [[monastery]] in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
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In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of St. [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - St. Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
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The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
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== Church Singing ==<br />
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Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], Novgorod, [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
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== The Publishing Business ==<br />
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In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
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Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
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Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
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A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
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== Sobornost ==<br />
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The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
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Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
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The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
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===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
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The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
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===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
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===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
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===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
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===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar Alexis I (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''Typikon'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the Third Rome appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the Ottoman Empir. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
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=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
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Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar |Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under Catherine the Great (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
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Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
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Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
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[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
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Within the Old-Believer world, only Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
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Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
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== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
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=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''Popovtsy'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы (Bespopovtsy — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
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The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed Greek Orthodox bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own episcopate, the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. Popovtsy have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
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* Belokrinitskaya hierarchy - The largest Popovtsy denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the Belokrinitskoe Soglasie (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
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* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to Bespopovtsy.<br />
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=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where Antichrist reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. Bespopovtsy have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
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* Pomortsy or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* Fedoseevts] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* Fillipovtsy.<br />
* Chasovennye (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a [[chapel]]) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as Semeyskie (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
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====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from Fedoseevtsy, supported the use of Pontius Pilate's inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns (troparia);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of Antichrist); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
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==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
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== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous Studion Monastery in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the Byzantine Empire and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. Cyprian of Moscow], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of Christ, but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom (Eastern Orthodox Churches and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of baptism by three full immersions, and reject the validity of baptism by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer]<br />
*[http://libweb.uoregon.edu/ec/oldbelievers/index.html Old Believers in North America - a bibliography]<br />
*[http://kirovold.ru/ Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://www.everyculture.com/Russia-Eurasia-China/Old-Believers.html World Culture Encyclopedia on Old Believers]<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/old.htm The Beloved Russian Old Ritualist Believers]<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://www.grokiskis.lt/lt/temos/dienos-tema/2010/05/07/sentikiai-musu-krastui-ypatingas-jubiliejus]<br />
*[http://wigowsky.com/products.html Freedom For an Old Believer, by Paul John Wigowsky]<br />
*[http://www.oldorthodox.ge/ Slavo-Georgian (Iberian) Old-Orthodox Church]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97150Sign of the Cross2011-01-04T22:42:11Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Alexandrian, and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97149Sign of the Cross2011-01-04T22:41:19Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Alexandrian, and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian, East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97148Sign of the Cross2011-01-04T22:38:51Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Alexandrian, and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian]], and [[Church of Antioch| Old Antiochian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97147Sign of the Cross2011-01-04T22:37:18Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Alexandrian, and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]], [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian Rites]], and [[Antiochian Orthodox Church| Old Antiochian Rite]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97146Sign of the Cross2011-01-04T22:34:01Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Alexandrian, and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian, and Old Antiochian Rites*:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97145Sign of the Cross2011-01-04T22:33:23Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian, Alexandrian, and New Antiochian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian, Old Antiochian Rites*:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=97100Sign of the Cross2011-01-01T13:26:49Z<p>Fatman2021: /* History */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the solar plexus (moving to the sternum as other denominations do forms an inverted cross). Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the solar plexus, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian Rites*:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The first mention of Christians making the sign of the Cross is in the 2nd Century by Tertullian who said: "In all our travels and movements, in all our coming in and going out, in putting of our shoes, at the bath, at the table, in lighting our candles, in lying down, in sitting down, whatever employment occupieth us, we mark our foreheads with the sign of the cross" (De cor. Mil., iii).<br />
<br />
In the early Church it is believed that the cross was made only on the forehead. Therefore Tertullian also says: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross." It is also believed that Christians would also use one finger to make the sign of the cross on their foreheads or on other items. Therefore in the life of St. Barbara, we read: "One day, as Barbara stood by the pool facing the east she said, In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and she miraculously drew the sign of the cross in the marble wall of the bathhouse with her finger."<br />
<br />
That the cross was made with only one finger is also confirmed by St. Epiphanius in his Panarion (Adv. Haer. Xxx, 12), where he speaks of a certain Josephus, who imparted to a vessel of water the power of overthrowing magical incantations by "making over the vessel with his finger the seal of the cross" pronouncing the while a form of prayer. Again half a century later Sozomen, the church historian (VII, xxvi), describes how Bishop Donatus when attacked by a demon "made the sign of the cross with his finger in the air and spat upon the monster".<br />
<br />
However, by the fourth century it appears as more than one finger began to be used for making the sign of the cross. Thus St Cyril of Jerusalem, in his Catecheses (xiii, 36) remarks: "Let us then not be ashamed to confess the Crucified. Be the cross our seal, made with boldness by our fingers on our brow and in every thing; over the bread we eat and the cups we drink, in our comings and in goings; before our sleep, when we lie down and when we awake; when we are traveling, and when we are at rest."<br />
<br />
It is believed that two fingers began to be used to make the sign of the cross, as a guard against Monophysitism. Thus by using two fingers, one would profess the two natures in Christ. It is therefore not surprising that the first evidence of using two fingers to make the sign of the cross is found in the writings of Theodoret of Cyrus, who is well known for his antagonism towards the Monophysites. Thus Theodoret of Cyrus writes: "Thus does one bless with the hand and cross oneself: Holding three fingers together evenly the thumb and the last two fingers-confesses a mystery in the image of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit. There are not three gods, but one God in Trinity; there is a distinction of names, but one Godhead. The Father is unbegotton; the Son is begotten of the Father, yet not created; the Holy Spirit is nither begotten nor created, but proceeds. They are three in one Godhead; but one in power, one in honour, one in the adoration of all creation, angles and men. Such is the explanation of these three fingers. Joining two fingers together-the index and the middle finger-and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: His Divinity and His Humanity. He is God according to His divinity and Man according to His hummanity, perfect in both natures. The index finger represents His divinity, while the middle finger repersents His hummanity, since He came down from on high and saved those below. The bending of the middle finger is interperted to mean that He bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation." (Domostroi Excerpt, chap. 13, Carolyn Johnston Pouncy, Cornell University, 1994)<br />
<br />
Saint Peter Damascene (+ 775 A.D.) also confirms this in his following discourse in the Philocalia: "The holy Fathers have handed down to us the meaning of this holy sign, in order to refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and the one hand then, represent then the crucified Lord Jesus Christ, who we profess as having two natures in one person. The right hand recalls His unlimited might and His sitting at the right hand of the Father. And one begins to trace it from above because of His decent from the heavens to us on earth. Furthermore, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away the enemies and indicates that the Lord through His invincible might has conquered the devil who is on the left, powerless and gloomy being." (Philocalia page 642)<br />
<br />
It is also claimed that St. Meletius the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch, also wrote a treaties outlining the signing of the cross with two fingers. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that St. Meletius the Confessor, as well as St. Cyril of Jerusalem, Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus all belonged to the local Church of Antioch, which at various points in time included all of Middle East as well as sometimes including Cappadocia, Asia Minor, Palestine, Sinai and elsewhere, prior to the establishment of the Patriarchates of Constantinople and Jerusalem. Therefore, it is possible that the signing of the cross with two fingers was not a universal custom, but only an Antiochian tradition. This would also make much sense, because the Antiochians were staunch defenders of Orthodoxy against Monophysitism, and thus, hence the emphasis of two natures and the signing of the cross with two fingers.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, by the time the Russian lands were enlightened in the 10th century, it was this tradition that prevailed in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and wherever else missionaries would have been sent to Russia from Byzantium. Hence, the Russian Church received this ancient tradition right from the very beginning, and preserved it for several centuries afterwards.<br />
<br />
However, at least by the 9th century, the practice had become prevalent throughout the Orthodox East and West for the sign of the cross to be made using three fingers instead of two. The thumb, index finger and middle finger were joined together to symbolize the Holy Trinity, while the ring finger and little finger were tucked into the palm to represent the two natures of Christ.<br />
<br />
The first written record of this form is found in the writings of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV of Rome who reposed in 855 A.D., and whom St. Photius the Great considered a Saint and attributed many miracles. Thus, Pope Leo writes: "Sign the chalice and the host, with a right cross and not with circles or with a varying of the fingers, but with two fingers stretched out and the thumb hidden within them, by which the Trinity is symbolized. Take heed to make this sign rightly, for otherwise you can bless nothing" (see Georgi, "Liturg. Rom. Pont.", III, 37).<br />
<br />
In about 1000 A.D., Aelfric, Abbot of Eynsham in England, who reposed in 1020 A.D., wrote the following: "A man may wave about wonderfully with his hands without creating any blessing unless he make the sign of the cross. But if he do the fiend will soon be frightened on account of the victorious token. With three fingers one must bless himself for the Holy Trinity" (Thorpe, "The Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church" I, 462).<br />
<br />
Over a century after the schism of 1054, the Frankish Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), made the following declaration: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity. ... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth, and from the Jews (right) He passed to the Gentiles (left)."<br />
<br />
The practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers may or may not have originated in the West. Nevertheless, it existed in the West by at least the year 855, before the repose of the Orthodox Pope Leo IV, and thus was practiced in the Orthodox West before the schism of 1054, and even for several centuries after the schism. In the East, the practice of making the sign of the cross with three fingers was the common practice by at least the 12th century. Thus the Greek Church, the Serbs, Bulgarians, Albanians, Georgians, Wallachians, Moldavians and even the Russians living under Polish rule all adopted the signing of the cross using three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. Interestingly, the use of three fingers also became the norm among the Monophysites Copts, Syrians, Armenians, and even the far off Ethiopians. However, all of the Monophysites make the sign of the cross from right to left, contrary to the practice of the Orthodox. The Nestorians of Mesopotamia, Persia and India also use three fingers today. This is ironic because the Nestorians would want to emphasize the two natures of Christ. Yet they do not sign the cross with two fingers representing the two natures, but rather with three fingers representing the Holy Trinity. The Nestorians also sign the cross from right to left, thereby having the exact same practice as the Greeks.<br />
<br />
Thus, the practice of making the sign with three fingers had reached the Italians, Spaniards, French, Germans, and English in the west. It had reached the Greeks, Bulgarians, Georgians, Albanians, Serbs, Wallachians, Moldavians and Poles. It had also reached the Egyptians, Syrians, Armenians, Mesopotamians, Persians, and even the far off Ethiopians and Indians. But it had not reached the Russians!<br />
<br />
The Orthodox Church of Russia continued to observe the practice of making the sign of the cross with two fingers, as had been prescribed by Theodoret of Cyrus and St. Peter of Damascus. The writings of these Fathers were even inscribed in the typicon (trebnik) used by the Russian Church. When by the middle of the 16th century, the Russians had realized their practice differed from the Poles to the west, and the Bulgarians, Greeks and Georgians to the south, measures were taken to decide which practice was more original. These issues were addressed at the Council Convened by Emperor Ivan the Terrible in the year 1551. This Council is also called the Stoglav Council, or the "Council of the One Hundred Chapters." However, this Council did not merely decide that the sign of the Cross should be made with two fingers, but it also condemned anyone who did not perform the sign of the Cross in this manner!<br />
<br />
Canon 31 of the Stoglav Council reads as follows: "The sign of the cross must be made according to the rules, in the form of a cross; and the right hand, that is, the dextral hand, must be used in crossing oneself, with the thumb and the two lower fingers joined together, and the extended index finger joined to the middle finger, slightly bent; thus should prelates [and] priests give their blessing and thus should men cross themselves… It befits all Orthodox Christians to hold their hand thus, and to make the sign of the cross upon their face with two fingers, and to bow, as we said before. If anyone should fail to give his blessing with two fingers, as Christ did, or should fail to make the sign of the cross with two fingers, may he be accursed…"<br />
<br />
In 1569, the Frankish Pope abolished the use of three fingers in the West, and ordered the sign of the cross to be made with five fingers, and from right to left, instead of left to right. However, this practice was not introduced in the East, neither among the Orthodox, nor among the Monophysites and Nestorians.<br />
<br />
In 1589, Ecumenical Patriarch Jeremias II Tranus visited Russia and elevated the Metropolitan of Moscow to the rank of Patriarch. The Greek and Russian Churches thus maintained their unity without fail, despite the fact that the Greeks made the sign of the cross with three fingers, while the Russians made it with two.<br />
<br />
In 1654, Patriarch Nicon of Moscow, after having visited the Ottoman Empire, understood that the practice of the Russian Church differed from that of the Greeks, Georgians, Romanians, Bulgarians and Serbs. He therefore called a Council, with the Czar’s approval, in which he requested revisions to be made to liturgical texts, as well as for the Russian Church to adopt the practice of using three fingers to make the sign of the cross. However, this immediately led to sharp opposition. The most prominent enemy of reform was the well-known Protopresbyter Abbacum.<br />
<br />
In 1666-1667, the Russian Church called another Council, in which it invited representatives from the Churches of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and elsewhere. However, none of the guests were Patriarchs, and some of the bishops had already been deposed by their own Churches. Furthermore, it is believed that many of the bishops were paid by the Russian State, with money and products, to vote in favor of the reform. The following is an account by Protopresbyter Abbacum regarding his dialogue with the Greek and Russian bishops at the Council of 1666-1667:<br />
<br />
"The last word they said to me was, "Why are you stubborn? All of Palestine – and the Serbs, the Albanians, the Wallachians, the Romans and the Poles – all of them cross themselves with the three fingers and only you remain obstinate and make the sign with two fingers. That is not fitting!" And I answered them for Christ as follows: "Ecumenical teachers! Rome has long since fallen and lies prostrate, and the Poles perished with them, and are the enemies of Christians to the end. Among you Orthodoxy has become mottled because of the violence of Mehmet the Turk – and one must not be amazed at you: you have become powerless. And so henceforth, come to us to study, for, by the grace of God, we have autocracy. Before Nikon the apostate, in Russia, under our pious princes and tsars, Orthodoxy was complete, pure and undefiled and the church without uproar. Nikon, that wolf, and the Devil ordered us to cross ourselves with three fingers: but our first pastors crossed themselves with two fingers and likewise gave their blessing with two fingers according to the tradition of the holy fathers, Meletius of Antioch, the blessed Theodoret Bishop of Cyrene, Peter of Damascus, and Maximus the Greek. Likewise the local council of Moscow under Tsar Ivan ordered us to cross ourselves and give the blessing, putting our fingers together in that way, to make the sign of the Cross and give the blessing, as of old the Holy Fathers Meletius and others taught. Then in the time of Ivan the Tsar, there were the standard-bearers, Gurias and Barsanuphius, wonder-workers of Kazan, and Philip the Abbot of Solovki among the Russian Saints." (‘Gudzy, Zhitie’ p. 101.)<br />
<br />
The Council of 1666-1667, nevertheless, reversed several decisions of the Stoglav Council held under Ivan the Terrible over a century earlier in 1551. Thus the use of three fingers to make the sign of the cross was no longer anathematized. On the contrary, the Synod of 1666-1667 anathematized all those who continue to make the sign of the cross with two fingers. Protopresbyter Abbacum was among those anathematized. He was imprisoned for another decade, after which he was burnt alive by order of the State.<br />
<br />
Finally, in the Sacred Rudder, St. Nicodemus of Mt Athos informs us in his 2nd footnote to the 91st Canon of St Basil the Great (Rudder, page 645 in the Greek edition, and page 857 in the English version): "The ancient Christians used to make the sign of the Cross with a different configuration of the hand, that is to say, more explicitly speaking, with only the two fingers of the hand, namely, the index finger and the middle finger, as St. Peter Damascene informs us (page 642 of Philocalia), where he says that the hand as a whole signifies the single substance of Christ, while the two fingers signify His two natures. But the custom now prevailing among Christians is for the two fingers to be conjoined with the thumb; and with these three together to represent the Holy Trinity…" (OCES, The Rudder, "The 92 Canons of St Basil the Great," Canon 91, footnote 2)<br />
<br />
The most ancient of Orthodox icons prove that at least the blessing was performed using the two finger gesture of the hand, as is still the practice among Old Believer hierarchs and priests to bless the flock, and as all Old Believers make the sign of the cross upon themselves.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=97034Old Believers2010-12-27T22:59:54Z<p>Fatman2021: /* External links */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
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In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
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Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
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Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Nikon of Moscow|Nikon]] (1605–1681; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [[anathema]]tized and suppressed with the support of Muscovite state power the prior liturgical rite itself as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as ''schismatics''. They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced during the reign of Empress Catherine the Great. At the same time they continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.<br />
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== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
<br />
Although a portion of the population of Kievan Rus' (Ruthenia) was Christian by 944, Knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, Ruthenia took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
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<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, the [[Stoglavy Sobor|Moscow Stoglav Church Council]] declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. [[Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow|Patriarch Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under Tsar Alexis, the second of the Romanovs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Pat. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of 1667, attended by the Patriarch of Alexandria and the Patriarch of Antioch, with delegates from both the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the Patriarch of Constantinople, the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patriarch Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Uniformity_1558 Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the hallelujah should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Jesus Christ|Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the [[clergy]] of simony and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
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Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient Antiochian Patriarchate. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian Old Believers. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev]], the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was possibly of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, [[Nicodemus the Hagiorite|St. Nicodemus]], in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
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== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This [[monastery]] in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of St. [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - St. Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
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== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], Novgorod, [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar Alexis I (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''Typikon'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the Third Rome appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the Ottoman Empir. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
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Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar |Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under Catherine the Great (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
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In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
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Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
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Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
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[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
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Within the Old-Believer world, only Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
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Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
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== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''Popovtsy'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы (Bespopovtsy — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
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The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed Greek Orthodox bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own episcopate, the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. Popovtsy have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
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* Belokrinitskaya hierarchy - The largest Popovtsy denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the Belokrinitskoe Soglasie (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to Bespopovtsy.<br />
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=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where Antichrist reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. Bespopovtsy have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
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* Pomortsy or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* Fedoseevts] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* Fillipovtsy.<br />
* Chasovennye (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a [[chapel]]) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as Semeyskie (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
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====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from Fedoseevtsy, supported the use of Pontius Pilate's inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns (troparia);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of Antichrist); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
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==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous Studion Monastery in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the Byzantine Empire and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. Cyprian of Moscow], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of Christ, but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom (Eastern Orthodox Churches and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of baptism by three full immersions, and reject the validity of baptism by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://www.altaistar.ru Old Believers of Altai (official site of the Barnaul Parish Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church)] <br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://libweb.uoregon.edu/ec/oldbelievers/index.html Old Believers in North America - a bibliography]<br />
*[http://kirovold.ru/ Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
*[http://www.everyculture.com/Russia-Eurasia-China/Old-Believers.html World Culture Encyclopedia on Old Believers]<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/old.htm The Beloved Russian Old Ritualist Believers]<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://www.grokiskis.lt/lt/temos/dienos-tema/2010/05/07/sentikiai-musu-krastui-ypatingas-jubiliejus]<br />
*[http://wigowsky.com/products.html Freedom For an Old Believer, by Paul John Wigowsky]<br />
*[http://www.oldorthodox.ge/ Slavo-Georgian (Iberian) Old-Orthodox Church]<br />
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[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
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[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Armenian_Rite&diff=96161Armenian Rite2010-11-09T17:48:32Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Echmiatsin altair.jpg|thumb|300px|An Armenian altar, with curtains.]]<br />
The '''Armenian Rite''' is an independent [[liturgy]]. This rite is used by both the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Orthodox]] and [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholic]] Churches; it is also the rite of a significant number of [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] Christians in the Republic of Georgia. <br />
<br />
The liturgy is patterned after the directives of [[Gregory the Enlightener|Saint Gregory the Illuminator]], founder and [[patron saint]] of The Armenian Church. Unlike the [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine Church]], churches of the Armenian rite are usually devoid of [[icon]]s and have a curtain concealing the [[priest]] and the [[altar]] from the people during parts of the liturgy, an influence from early apostolic times. The use of [[bishop]]'s [[miter]] and of unleavened bread, is reminiscent of the influence Western missionaries once had upon both the [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] Orthodox Armenians as well as upon the Armenian Rite Catholics.<br />
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<br />
==Celebration of the Eucharist==<br />
The order of the Armenian celebration of the [[Eucharist]] or [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] is initially influenced by the [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] and [[Cappadocian Fathers|Cappadocian]] Christians, then (from the 5th century A.D. onwards) by [[Liturgy of St. James|Jerusalemites]], then by [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantines]] (from ca. the 10th century) and lastly by the [[Latin Rite|Latins]] in the [[Crusades]]. The Armenians are the only [[Eastern Church]] using wine without added water, and are criticised by the East and West for their seemingly [[monophysite]] beliefs, see ''[[Armenian_Orthodox_Church#Miaphysitism_versus_monophysitism|miaphysitism versus monophysitism]]'' in the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Armenians use unleavened bread for the Eucharist.<br />
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From all the Armenian language [[Anaphora (liturgy)|anaphora]]s the only one currently in use is the anaphora of [[Athanasius of Alexandria]]. It became the standard anaphora of the Armenian church before the end of the 10th century and is a translation of the Greek version. In research it is often attributed to [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], or to an older version of the Armenian anaphora of [[St. Basil]] or seen as a composite text.<br />
<br />
== Source ==<br />
<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Rite Wikipedia - Armenian Rite]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Liturgics]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=File:Echmiatsin_altair.jpg&diff=96160File:Echmiatsin altair.jpg2010-11-09T17:47:35Z<p>Fatman2021: Echmiatsin, altair in cathedral (in Armenia)
* License: Creative Commons by/sa/de
* Date: March 2005
* Photographer: de:Mcschreck, uploaded by Roger Zenner</p>
<hr />
<div>== Summary ==<br />
Echmiatsin, altair in cathedral (in Armenia)<br />
<br />
* License: Creative Commons by/sa/de<br />
* Date: March 2005<br />
* Photographer: de:Mcschreck, uploaded by Roger Zenner<br />
<br />
== Copyright status ==<br />
CC<br />
== Source ==<br />
Wikipedia - Armenian Rite</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=90768Old Believers2010-02-21T05:08:31Z<p>Fatman2021: /* Revision of the Church Books */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
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<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Nikon of Moscow|Nikon]] (1605–1681; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [[anathema]]tized and suppressed with the support of Muscovite state power the prior liturgical rite itself as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as ''schismatics''. They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced during the reign of Empress Catherine the Great. At the same time they continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.<br />
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== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
<br />
Although a portion of the population of Kievan Rus' (Ruthenia) was Christian by 944, Knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, Ruthenia took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
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<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In [[1551]], the [[Stoglavy Sobor|Moscow Stoglav Church Council]] declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. [[Patriarch Filaret (Feodor Romanov)|Patriarch Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under [[Tsar Alexis of Russia|Alexis]], the second of the Romanovs, in [[1654]], a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at [[Moscow]], over which the [[Patriarch Nikon]] presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of [[1667]], attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent [[Patriarch Nikon]] was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [[Act of Uniformity]] in the [[Anglican Church]], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in [[1375]], [[Strigolniki|Karp Strigolnik]], a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in [[Russia]] is actually a historic rite of the ancient [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]]{{citation}}. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian Old Believers. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev (metropolitan)|St. Michael]], the first [[Metropolitan of Kiev]], was possibly of [[Syrian]] origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in [[Russia]]. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in [[Antioch]] itself. However, [[Nicodemus the Hagiorite|St. Nicodemus]], in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of [[Christ]], and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
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== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Patr. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, Paul of Aleppo, and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in 1667, attended by the Patriarch of Alexandria and the Patriarch of Antioch, with delegates from both the Patriarch of Jerusalem and Patriarch of Constantinople, the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patr. Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the Russian Orthodox Church, and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the Byzantine Rite, or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed in the Armenian Rite. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient |Antiochian Patriarchate. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, Meletius of Antioch, Theodoret of Cyrus and Peter of Damascus) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian Old Believers. Perhaps the fact that Michael of Kiev, the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder, also mentions that Christians at one time made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the Holy Trinity.<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar Alexis I (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''Typikon'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the Third Rome appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the Ottoman Empir. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar |Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under Catherine the Great (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''Popovtsy'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы (Bespopovtsy — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed Greek Orthodox bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own episcopate, the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. Popovtsy have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* Belokrinitskaya hierarchy - The largest Popovtsy denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the Belokrinitskoe Soglasie (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to Bespopovtsy.<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where Antichrist reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. Bespopovtsy have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* Pomortsy or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* Fedoseevts] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* Fillipovtsy.<br />
* Chasovennye (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as Semeyskie (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from Fedoseevtsy, supported the use of Pontius Pilate's inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns (troparia);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of Antichrist); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous Studion Monastery in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the Byzantine Empire and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. Cyprian of Moscow], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of baptism by three full immersions, and reject the validity of baptism by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=90767Old Believers2010-02-21T04:56:06Z<p>Fatman2021: /* External links */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Nikon of Moscow|Nikon]] (1605–1681; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [[anathema]]tized and suppressed with the support of Muscovite state power the prior liturgical rite itself as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as ''schismatics''. They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced during the reign of Empress Catherine the Great. At the same time they continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
<br />
Although a portion of the population of Kievan Rus' (Ruthenia) was Christian by 944, Knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, Ruthenia took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, the [Moscow Stoglav Church Council declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. Patriarch [[Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanovs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Patr. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of 1667, attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patriarch Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the hallelujah should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of simony and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient Antiochian Patriarchate{{citation}}. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael of Kiev|St. Michael]], the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
<br />
<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Patr. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, Paul of Aleppo, and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in 1667, attended by the Patriarch of Alexandria and the Patriarch of Antioch, with delegates from both the Patriarch of Jerusalem and Patriarch of Constantinople, the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patr. Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the Russian Orthodox Church, and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the Byzantine Rite, or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed in the Armenian Rite. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient |Antiochian Patriarchate. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, Meletius of Antioch, Theodoret of Cyrus and Peter of Damascus) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian Old Believers. Perhaps the fact that Michael of Kiev, the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder, also mentions that Christians at one time made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the Holy Trinity.<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar Alexis I (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''Typikon'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the Third Rome appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the Ottoman Empir. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar |Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under Catherine the Great (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''Popovtsy'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы (Bespopovtsy — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed Greek Orthodox bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own episcopate, the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. Popovtsy have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* Belokrinitskaya hierarchy - The largest Popovtsy denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the Belokrinitskoe Soglasie (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to Bespopovtsy.<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where Antichrist reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. Bespopovtsy have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* Pomortsy or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* Fedoseevts] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* Fillipovtsy.<br />
* Chasovennye (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as Semeyskie (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from Fedoseevtsy, supported the use of Pontius Pilate's inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns (troparia);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of Antichrist); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous Studion Monastery in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the Byzantine Empire and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. Cyprian of Moscow], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of baptism by three full immersions, and reject the validity of baptism by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=90766Old Believers2010-02-21T04:51:17Z<p>Fatman2021: /* External links */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Nikon of Moscow|Nikon]] (1605–1681; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [[anathema]]tized and suppressed with the support of Muscovite state power the prior liturgical rite itself as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as ''schismatics''. They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced during the reign of Empress Catherine the Great. At the same time they continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
<br />
Although a portion of the population of Kievan Rus' (Ruthenia) was Christian by 944, Knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, Ruthenia took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, the [Moscow Stoglav Church Council declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. Patriarch [[Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanovs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Patr. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of 1667, attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patriarch Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the hallelujah should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of simony and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient Antiochian Patriarchate{{citation}}. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael of Kiev|St. Michael]], the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
<br />
<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the Patr. Nikon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the Patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, Paul of Aleppo, and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in 1667, attended by the Patriarch of Alexandria and the Patriarch of Antioch, with delegates from both the Patriarch of Jerusalem and Patriarch of Constantinople, the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Patr. Nikon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the Russian Orthodox Church, and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the Anglican Church, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the Byzantine Rite, or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed in the Armenian Rite. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in Russia is actually a historic rite of the ancient |Antiochian Patriarchate. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, Meletius of Antioch, Theodoret of Cyrus and Peter of Damascus) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian Old Believers. Perhaps the fact that Michael of Kiev, the first Metropolitan of Kiev, was of Syrian origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in Russia. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in Antioch itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder, also mentions that Christians at one time made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of Christ, and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the Holy Trinity.<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar Alexis I (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''Typikon'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other liturgical books with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the Third Rome appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the Ottoman Empir. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar |Nicholas I (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under Catherine the Great (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''Popovtsy'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы (Bespopovtsy — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed Greek Orthodox bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own episcopate, the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. Popovtsy have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* Belokrinitskaya hierarchy - The largest Popovtsy denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the Belokrinitskoe Soglasie (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to Bespopovtsy.<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where Antichrist reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. Bespopovtsy have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* Pomortsy or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* Fedoseevts] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* Fillipovtsy.<br />
* Chasovennye (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as Semeyskie (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from Fedoseevtsy, supported the use of Pontius Pilate's inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns (troparia);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of Antichrist); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous Studion Monastery in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the Byzantine Empire and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. Cyprian of Moscow], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council|Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of baptism by three full immersions, and reject the validity of baptism by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=89866Sign of the Cross2010-01-09T00:12:44Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek, Latin, West Armenian Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the sternum. Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the sternum, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. For example, some may mark a very large cross, or a very small one. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian Rites*:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
There is no dispute over the centrality of the Cross in the spirituality and understanding of the Church. The first definitive written records of Christians “making the sign of the Cross” come from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries. Scholars have long noted that practices/beliefs were assumed and already well in effect (like the Scriptures) by the time they were in written form.<br />
<br />
The current evidence is that the sign of the Cross was traced with one finger (most likely the thumb) on the forehead (and over the mouth when reading Scripture) and over anyone or anything Christians wished to consecrate. The Cross was traced with the right hand (unless one was disabled, etc.), which itself symbolized intimacy with the Christ “who sits at the right hand of God.”<br />
<br />
The making the sign of the Cross on one’s forehead corresponds with the ancient cultures of the Scriptures (e.g. Genesis 4; Ezekiel 9). Marks on the forehead conspicuously display and proclaim the spiritual condition or identity of the person as seen and identified by God. Phylacteries (small leather pouches with symbols of the Torah inside them) were worn around the right hand and forehead of the pious Jew. In the New Testament, marks on the forehead or right hand identified people with God or alignment with the antichrist. On the forehead of [[martyr]]ed Christians (Revelation 14 & 22), it symbolized the very Name of God Himself. It was easy to equate making the sign of the Cross on the forehead with the Greek letter “X” (chi - the first letter of the name of Christ in Greek) as it was made with the same gesture.<br />
<br />
By the 4th century, the sign of the Cross began to be traced by two (the index and middle) fingers. It also reflected how [[bishop]]s or (beginning with the 4th century) [[presbyter]]s (when they began to function as [[priest]]s) blessed others; the classic Roman gesture for public speaking was the two fingers extended. By the 8th century, the two fingers came to symbolize the two natures of Christ and to distinguish Christians in the East under Islamic rule from Muslims who, as some sources from that time show, lifted “one finger when asking Allah for forgiveness.”<br />
<br />
Evidence from the 8th century shows the shift of tracing the sign of the Cross to over the body in the wake of the [[Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic]] Controversy. In destroying/removing [[icon]]s from churches, the iconoclasts replaced them with paintings/mosaics of large Crosses (usually a major sized one in the [[apse]] of the [[Altar]]), a symbol with which all, iconoclasts and [[Iconodule|iconophiles]] (lovers of icons), could agree. With no icons in the churches, other symbols (like the making of the sign of the Cross) were greatly magnified by iconoclasts to show that they were not trying to be impious. While Iconoclasm was heretical, the symbol of the Cross was not. After the controversy ended with the [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]] (787), iconophiles continued the practice of tracing the sign of the Cross over the body (head to heart to shoulders—right to left, as when traced on the forehead, in both East and West) with the two fingers.<br />
<br />
By mid 9th century the “three fingers” are replacing the “two finger sign” (though in the East it did not become universal until after the 17th century following the Old Believer Schism in Russia), expanding the focus that through the crucified Jesus we enter communion with the Holy Trinity. In the 13th century in the West, we have the first mention of some who “make the sign of the Cross from the left to the right,” the reasons varying from crossing from misery (left) to glory (right) to mirroring the priest blessing them. Oriental Orthodox Christians (Coptic, Armenian, etc.) cross themselves left to right, seeing the meaning as praying that they not be on the left but on the right of the Judgment Seat (whether this developed independently or as a result of later Western/Latin influence is, as of yet, historically unclear). Later centuries would see the West become universal in not only crossing from left to right but also in changing from using the three fingers to using the whole (open) hand.<br />
<br />
Regardless of how the Cross was (is) traced in the various traditions, the Church has understood its expression as concretely identifying oneself with the Lord who, through His crucifixion, fully participates in our humanity, which then, as seen in the resurrection-ascension, brings us to organically participate in the life of the Trinity. The Cross symbolizes (“brings together”) God’s organic descent into death and darkness, through which we are given back to Him. It also symbolizes our embracing the spiritual battle within the deserts of our hearts and choosing to see things from the perspective of the God who shows His all-powerful and sovereign Love by giving up control of His very life on the Cross.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=89813Sign of the Cross2010-01-08T00:21:19Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
<br />
==How to==<br />
'''''Greek and Latin Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the sternum. Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the sternum, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. For example, some may mark a very large cross, or a very small one. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
<br />
[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|East Armenian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and East Armenian Rites*:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
<br />
<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
<br />
You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
==History==<br />
There is no dispute over the centrality of the Cross in the spirituality and understanding of the Church. The first definitive written records of Christians “making the sign of the Cross” come from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries. Scholars have long noted that practices/beliefs were assumed and already well in effect (like the Scriptures) by the time they were in written form.<br />
<br />
The current evidence is that the sign of the Cross was traced with one finger (most likely the thumb) on the forehead (and over the mouth when reading Scripture) and over anyone or anything Christians wished to consecrate. The Cross was traced with the right hand (unless one was disabled, etc.), which itself symbolized intimacy with the Christ “who sits at the right hand of God.”<br />
<br />
The making the sign of the Cross on one’s forehead corresponds with the ancient cultures of the Scriptures (e.g. Genesis 4; Ezekiel 9). Marks on the forehead conspicuously display and proclaim the spiritual condition or identity of the person as seen and identified by God. Phylacteries (small leather pouches with symbols of the Torah inside them) were worn around the right hand and forehead of the pious Jew. In the New Testament, marks on the forehead or right hand identified people with God or alignment with the antichrist. On the forehead of [[martyr]]ed Christians (Revelation 14 & 22), it symbolized the very Name of God Himself. It was easy to equate making the sign of the Cross on the forehead with the Greek letter “X” (chi - the first letter of the name of Christ in Greek) as it was made with the same gesture.<br />
<br />
By the 4th century, the sign of the Cross began to be traced by two (the index and middle) fingers. It also reflected how [[bishop]]s or (beginning with the 4th century) [[presbyter]]s (when they began to function as [[priest]]s) blessed others; the classic Roman gesture for public speaking was the two fingers extended. By the 8th century, the two fingers came to symbolize the two natures of Christ and to distinguish Christians in the East under Islamic rule from Muslims who, as some sources from that time show, lifted “one finger when asking Allah for forgiveness.”<br />
<br />
Evidence from the 8th century shows the shift of tracing the sign of the Cross to over the body in the wake of the [[Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic]] Controversy. In destroying/removing [[icon]]s from churches, the iconoclasts replaced them with paintings/mosaics of large Crosses (usually a major sized one in the [[apse]] of the [[Altar]]), a symbol with which all, iconoclasts and [[Iconodule|iconophiles]] (lovers of icons), could agree. With no icons in the churches, other symbols (like the making of the sign of the Cross) were greatly magnified by iconoclasts to show that they were not trying to be impious. While Iconoclasm was heretical, the symbol of the Cross was not. After the controversy ended with the [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]] (787), iconophiles continued the practice of tracing the sign of the Cross over the body (head to heart to shoulders—right to left, as when traced on the forehead, in both East and West) with the two fingers.<br />
<br />
By mid 9th century the “three fingers” are replacing the “two finger sign” (though in the East it did not become universal until after the 17th century following the Old Believer Schism in Russia), expanding the focus that through the crucified Jesus we enter communion with the Holy Trinity. In the 13th century in the West, we have the first mention of some who “make the sign of the Cross from the left to the right,” the reasons varying from crossing from misery (left) to glory (right) to mirroring the priest blessing them. Oriental Orthodox Christians (Coptic, Armenian, etc.) cross themselves left to right, seeing the meaning as praying that they not be on the left but on the right of the Judgment Seat (whether this developed independently or as a result of later Western/Latin influence is, as of yet, historically unclear). Later centuries would see the West become universal in not only crossing from left to right but also in changing from using the three fingers to using the whole (open) hand.<br />
<br />
Regardless of how the Cross was (is) traced in the various traditions, the Church has understood its expression as concretely identifying oneself with the Lord who, through His crucifixion, fully participates in our humanity, which then, as seen in the resurrection-ascension, brings us to organically participate in the life of the Trinity. The Cross symbolizes (“brings together”) God’s organic descent into death and darkness, through which we are given back to Him. It also symbolizes our embracing the spiritual battle within the deserts of our hearts and choosing to see things from the perspective of the God who shows His all-powerful and sovereign Love by giving up control of His very life on the Cross.<br />
<br />
==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
<br />
The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
<br />
[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_of_Georgia&diff=88586Church of Georgia2009-10-29T21:05:20Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Church of Georgia''' is one of the oldest Christian churches, tracing its origins in tradition to the [[missionary]] efforts of the [[Apostle Andrew]] in the first century. Historically, adoption of Christianity by the kingdom of Georgia (Iberia) is traced to the missionary efforts of St. [[Nino of Cappadocia]] beginning in early fourth century. Initially, the Georgian [[church]] was part of the territory of the [[Patriarchate of Antioch]]. The church was granted [[autocephaly]] by the Patriarch of Antioch in 466. While seriously disrupted by the invasions of the various tartar tribes in the 13 and 15th centuries the autocephalous church survived until it was placed under the administration of the synodal [[Church of Russia]] in 1811. After the abdication of Czar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] following the 1917 February Revolution, the Georgian [[hierarch]]s restored autocephaly that was eventually recognized by the [[Church of Constantinople]] and the [[Church of Russia]].<br />
<br />
{{church|<br />
name=Catholocate of Iberia [[Image:Patriarchate_of_Georgia.gif|center|The Church of Georgia]]|<br />
founder= [[Apostles]] [[Apostle Andrew|Andrew]], [[Apostle Simon|Simon the Canaanite]]|<br />
independence=Antioch in 486, Russia in 1917|<br />
recognition= 486, again 1990 |<br />
primate=[[Ilia II (Ghudushauri-Shiolashvili) of Georgia|Patr. Ilia II]]|<br />
hq=Tbilisi, Georgia|<br />
territory=Georgia, Armenia|<br />
possessions= Great Britain, Western Europe, Turkey, Azerbaijan|<br />
language=Georgian|<br />
music=[[Georgian Chant]]|<br />
calendar=[[Julian Calendar]]|<br />
population=3,500,000|<br />
website=[http://www.patriarchate.ge/ Church of Georgia]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Ancient origins==<br />
According to tradition the Apostle Andrew, the First Called, preached in Georgia in the first century. Tradition relates that he came with the Holy Mother's Uncreated Icon, that is the icon of the [[Theotokos]] not made by human hands. This tradition introduced a deep affection for the Theotokos into Georgian conscientiousness. Additionally, tradition speaks to preaching by other [[apostles]] in Georgia including Simon the Canaanite, Matthias, Bartholomew, and Thaddeus. The establishment of the first Georgian [[eparchy]] ([[diocese]]) was also credited to the Apostle Andrew. <br />
<br />
The active history of Christianity in Georgia begins with the missionary activities of [[Nino of Cappadocia]] beginning in 303. By 317 her message reached the rulers of the eastern and western kingdoms of Georgia when King Miriam II of Iberia (Eastern Georgia) and Queen Nana of Western Georgia adopted Christianity as the state religion. The Christianization of Georgia progressed over the next several centuries.<br />
<br />
As part of the late Roman (Byzantine) Empire Georgian Christianity was heavily influenced by its form of practice. Initially, the churches in Georgia were part of the Apostolic See of Antioch. The Church of Georgia became [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] when the Patriarch of Antioch elevated the [[bishop]] of Mtskheta to the honor of Catholicos of Kastli in 466, an elevation recognized by the rest of the Church. Subsequently, the [[Catholicos]] was given the added title of [[Patriarch]] in 1010, making the title of the primate of the Georgian Church the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia.<br />
<br />
The invasions of the tartars in the 13th and 15th centuries greatly disrupted Christianity and the government of Georgia. The state as well as the church were divided into two separate parts, in which the churches were governed by two separate Catholicos-Patriarchs. In 1801, Eastern Georgia, that is Kartli-Kakheti, was annexed by the Czar of Russia. By 1811, the Church in Georgia was absorbed into the Synodal Church of Russia, ending autocephaly for the Georgian church.<br />
<br />
==Recent history==<br />
As the Russian Empire began to dissolve after the abdication of Czar Nicholas II following the 1917 February Revolution, the Georgian hierarchs unilaterally announced restoration of autocephaly. While not accepted by the Church of Russia, the Soviet forces went further, regarding all Orthodox in Soviet territory to be subjected to their rule. Thus, the Church in Georgia was harassed and churches and other church activities were closed. [[Clergy]], [[monk]]s, and Christians in general were killed in the ensuing purges of the next several decades.<br />
<br />
With recognition of the Orthodox Church by Stalin after the 1941 Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, to gain support of the Church for repulsing the invasion, the autocephaly of the Church of Georgia was recognized in 1943 by the Church of Russia. Then, in 1989, autocephaly was recognized by the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], thus approving the ''de facto'' autocephaly exercised since the fifth century.<br />
<br />
In Abkhazia, a region within Georgia which has declared itself an independent state (recognized by Russia, Nicaragua and South Ossetia), Georgian church authorities have largely been prevented from exercising any authority, and the Abkhazian leadership has exiled the diocesan bishop appointed by the Catholicosate. Functioning within the area is the so-called Abkhazian Orthodox Church, which is as yet unrecognized by any other Orthodox church, although it has been given some practical support by the [[Church of Russia]].[http://www.forum18.org/Archive.php?article_id=1183] The breakaway diocese is now seeking to become a self-governed church under the Moscow Patriarchate.[http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=5140]<br />
<br />
==Organization==<br />
With the downfall of the Soviet Union and the resulting independence of the country of Georgia, a great revival has taken place for the Church of Georgia. As of 2002, more than eighty percent of the population of Georgia has identified themselves as Orthodox Christians. The church itself was organized into 33 [[diocese]]s, with 512 churches. The church in Georgia of some 3.5 million people was served by 730 [[priest]]s.<br />
<br />
===Primatial title===<br />
The full title of the [[primate]] of the Church of Georgia is: "His Holiness and Beatitude, Catholicos-[[Patriarch]] of all Georgia, [[Archbishop]] of Mtskheta and Tbilisi" (Georgian: უწმიდესი და უნეტარესი, სრულიად საქართველოს კათოლიკოს-პატრიარქი, მცხეთა-თბილისის მთავარეპისკოპოსი).<br />
<br />
====Recent Catholicos-Patriarchs of All Georgia====<br />
*[[Kirion II (Sadzaglishvili)|Kirion II]] (1917-1918)<br />
*Leonide (1918-1921)<br />
*Ambrosi (1921-1927)<br />
*Christefore III (1927-1932)<br />
*Kalistrare (1932-1952)<br />
*Melkisedek III (1952-1960)<br />
*Eprem II (1960-1072)<br />
*David V (1972-1977)<br />
*Ilia II (1977 to present)<br />
<br />
===Dioceses of Georgia===<br />
* Dioceses in Georgia<br />
** [[Diocese of Mtskheta and Tbilisi]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Alaverdi]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Akhalkalaki and Kumurdo]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Batumi and Skhalta]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Bodbe]]<br />
** Diocese of Bolnisi<br />
** Diocese of Borjomi and Bakuriani<br />
** Diocese of Chiatura<br />
** Diocese of Chqondidi<br />
** Diocese of Dmanisi<br />
** Diocese of Khoni and Samtredia<br />
** Diocese of Kutais-Gaenati<br />
** Diocese of Manglisi and Tsalka<br />
** Diocese of Margveti and Ubisa<br />
** Diocese of Mestia and Svaneti<br />
** Diocese of Nikortsminda<br />
** Diocese of Nikozi and Tskhinvali<br />
** Diocese of Poti and Khobi<br />
** Diocese of Rustavi and Marneuli<br />
** Diocese of Samtavisi and Gori<br />
** Diocese of Senaki and Chkhorotsqu<br />
** Diocese of Shemokmedi <br />
** Diocese of Stephantsminda and Khevi<br />
** Diocese of Tsageri and Lentekhi<br />
** Diocese of Tsilkani and Dusheti<br />
** Diocese of Tskhum-Apkhazeti <br />
** Diocese of Urbnisi and Ruisi<br />
** Diocese of Vani and Bagdati <br />
** Diocese of Zugdidi and Tsaishi <br />
* Dioceses partly abroad Georgia <br />
** Diocese of Akhaltsikhe, Tao-Klarjeti and Lazeti (partly in Turkey)<br />
** Diocese of Nekresi and Hereti (partly in Azerbaijan)<br />
* Dioceses abroad Georgia<br />
** Diocese of Agaraki and Tashiri (Armenia)<br />
** Diocese of West Europe (Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.patriarchate.ge Website of the Church of Georgia]<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Church of Georgia]]<br />
* [http://www.stnicholas-billings.org/History/SpecialTopics/georgiachurchhistory.htm History of the Orthodox Church of Georgia] <br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions|Georgia]]<br />
<br />
{{churches}}<br />
<br />
[[es:Iglesia Ortodoxa de Georgia]]<br />
[[fr:Église de Géorgie]]<br />
[[ro:Biserica Ortodoxă a Georgiei]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Church_of_Georgia&diff=88585Church of Georgia2009-10-29T20:55:15Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Church of Georgia''' is one of the oldest Christian churches, tracing its origins in tradition to the [[missionary]] efforts of the [[Apostle Andrew]] in the first century. Historically, adoption of Christianity by the kingdom of Georgia (Iberia) is traced to the missionary efforts of St. [[Nino of Cappadocia]] beginning in early fourth century. Initially, the Georgian [[church]] was part of the territory of the [[Patriarchate of Antioch]]. The church was granted [[autocephaly]] by the Patriarch of Antioch in 466. While seriously disrupted by the invasions of the various tartar tribes in the 13 and 15th centuries the autocephalous church survived until it was placed under the administration of the synodal [[Church of Russia]] in 1811. After the abdication of Czar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] following the 1917 February Revolution, the Georgian [[hierarch]]s restored autocephaly that was eventually recognized by the [[Church of Constantinople]] and the [[Church of Russia]].<br />
<br />
{{church|<br />
name=Catholocate of Georgia [[Image:Patriarchate_of_Georgia.gif|center|The Church of Georgia]]|<br />
founder= [[Apostles]] [[Apostle Andrew|Andrew]], [[Apostle Simon|Simon the Canaanite]]|<br />
independence=Antioch in 486, Russia in 1917|<br />
recognition= 486, again 1990 |<br />
primate=[[Ilia II (Ghudushauri-Shiolashvili) of Georgia|Patr. Ilia II]]|<br />
hq=Tbilisi, Georgia|<br />
territory=Georgia, Armenia|<br />
possessions= Great Britain, Western Europe, Turkey, Azerbaijan|<br />
language=Georgian|<br />
music=[[Georgian Chant]]|<br />
calendar=[[Julian Calendar]]|<br />
population=3,500,000|<br />
website=[http://www.patriarchate.ge/ Church of Georgia]<br />
}}<br />
<br />
==Ancient origins==<br />
According to tradition the Apostle Andrew, the First Called, preached in Georgia in the first century. Tradition relates that he came with the Holy Mother's Uncreated Icon, that is the icon of the [[Theotokos]] not made by human hands. This tradition introduced a deep affection for the Theotokos into Georgian conscientiousness. Additionally, tradition speaks to preaching by other [[apostles]] in Georgia including Simon the Canaanite, Matthias, Bartholomew, and Thaddeus. The establishment of the first Georgian [[eparchy]] ([[diocese]]) was also credited to the Apostle Andrew. <br />
<br />
The active history of Christianity in Georgia begins with the missionary activities of [[Nino of Cappadocia]] beginning in 303. By 317 her message reached the rulers of the eastern and western kingdoms of Georgia when King Miriam II of Iberia (Eastern Georgia) and Queen Nana of Western Georgia adopted Christianity as the state religion. The Christianization of Georgia progressed over the next several centuries.<br />
<br />
As part of the late Roman (Byzantine) Empire Georgian Christianity was heavily influenced by its form of practice. Initially, the churches in Georgia were part of the Apostolic See of Antioch. The Church of Georgia became [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] when the Patriarch of Antioch elevated the [[bishop]] of Mtskheta to the honor of Catholicos of Kastli in 466, an elevation recognized by the rest of the Church. Subsequently, the [[Catholicos]] was given the added title of [[Patriarch]] in 1010, making the title of the primate of the Georgian Church the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia.<br />
<br />
The invasions of the tartars in the 13th and 15th centuries greatly disrupted Christianity and the government of Georgia. The state as well as the church were divided into two separate parts, in which the churches were governed by two separate Catholicos-Patriarchs. In 1801, Eastern Georgia, that is Kartli-Kakheti, was annexed by the Czar of Russia. By 1811, the Church in Georgia was absorbed into the Synodal Church of Russia, ending autocephaly for the Georgian church.<br />
<br />
==Recent history==<br />
As the Russian Empire began to dissolve after the abdication of Czar Nicholas II following the 1917 February Revolution, the Georgian hierarchs unilaterally announced restoration of autocephaly. While not accepted by the Church of Russia, the Soviet forces went further, regarding all Orthodox in Soviet territory to be subjected to their rule. Thus, the Church in Georgia was harassed and churches and other church activities were closed. [[Clergy]], [[monk]]s, and Christians in general were killed in the ensuing purges of the next several decades.<br />
<br />
With recognition of the Orthodox Church by Stalin after the 1941 Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, to gain support of the Church for repulsing the invasion, the autocephaly of the Church of Georgia was recognized in 1943 by the Church of Russia. Then, in 1989, autocephaly was recognized by the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], thus approving the ''de facto'' autocephaly exercised since the fifth century.<br />
<br />
In Abkhazia, a region within Georgia which has declared itself an independent state (recognized by Russia, Nicaragua and South Ossetia), Georgian church authorities have largely been prevented from exercising any authority, and the Abkhazian leadership has exiled the diocesan bishop appointed by the Catholicosate. Functioning within the area is the so-called Abkhazian Orthodox Church, which is as yet unrecognized by any other Orthodox church, although it has been given some practical support by the [[Church of Russia]].[http://www.forum18.org/Archive.php?article_id=1183] The breakaway diocese is now seeking to become a self-governed church under the Moscow Patriarchate.[http://www.interfax-religion.com/?act=news&div=5140]<br />
<br />
==Organization==<br />
With the downfall of the Soviet Union and the resulting independence of the country of Georgia, a great revival has taken place for the Church of Georgia. As of 2002, more than eighty percent of the population of Georgia has identified themselves as Orthodox Christians. The church itself was organized into 33 [[diocese]]s, with 512 churches. The church in Georgia of some 3.5 million people was served by 730 [[priest]]s.<br />
<br />
===Primatial title===<br />
The full title of the [[primate]] of the Church of Georgia is: "His Holiness and Beatitude, Catholicos-[[Patriarch]] of all Georgia, [[Archbishop]] of Mtskheta and Tbilisi" (Georgian: უწმიდესი და უნეტარესი, სრულიად საქართველოს კათოლიკოს-პატრიარქი, მცხეთა-თბილისის მთავარეპისკოპოსი).<br />
<br />
====Recent Catholicos-Patriarchs of All Georgia====<br />
*[[Kirion II (Sadzaglishvili)|Kirion II]] (1917-1918)<br />
*Leonide (1918-1921)<br />
*Ambrosi (1921-1927)<br />
*Christefore III (1927-1932)<br />
*Kalistrare (1932-1952)<br />
*Melkisedek III (1952-1960)<br />
*Eprem II (1960-1072)<br />
*David V (1972-1977)<br />
*Ilia II (1977 to present)<br />
<br />
===Dioceses of Georgia===<br />
* Dioceses in Georgia<br />
** [[Diocese of Mtskheta and Tbilisi]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Alaverdi]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Akhalkalaki and Kumurdo]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Batumi and Skhalta]]<br />
** [[Diocese of Bodbe]]<br />
** Diocese of Bolnisi<br />
** Diocese of Borjomi and Bakuriani<br />
** Diocese of Chiatura<br />
** Diocese of Chqondidi<br />
** Diocese of Dmanisi<br />
** Diocese of Khoni and Samtredia<br />
** Diocese of Kutais-Gaenati<br />
** Diocese of Manglisi and Tsalka<br />
** Diocese of Margveti and Ubisa<br />
** Diocese of Mestia and Svaneti<br />
** Diocese of Nikortsminda<br />
** Diocese of Nikozi and Tskhinvali<br />
** Diocese of Poti and Khobi<br />
** Diocese of Rustavi and Marneuli<br />
** Diocese of Samtavisi and Gori<br />
** Diocese of Senaki and Chkhorotsqu<br />
** Diocese of Shemokmedi <br />
** Diocese of Stephantsminda and Khevi<br />
** Diocese of Tsageri and Lentekhi<br />
** Diocese of Tsilkani and Dusheti<br />
** Diocese of Tskhum-Apkhazeti <br />
** Diocese of Urbnisi and Ruisi<br />
** Diocese of Vani and Bagdati <br />
** Diocese of Zugdidi and Tsaishi <br />
* Dioceses partly abroad Georgia <br />
** Diocese of Akhaltsikhe, Tao-Klarjeti and Lazeti (partly in Turkey)<br />
** Diocese of Nekresi and Hereti (partly in Azerbaijan)<br />
* Dioceses abroad Georgia<br />
** Diocese of Agaraki and Tashiri (Armenia)<br />
** Diocese of West Europe (Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, Spain, Italy, Austria)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.patriarchate.ge Website of the Church of Georgia]<br />
* [[Wikipedia:Church of Georgia]]<br />
* [http://www.stnicholas-billings.org/History/SpecialTopics/georgiachurchhistory.htm History of the Orthodox Church of Georgia] <br />
*[http://www.georgianchant.org GeorgianChant.org: Resource for the Study of Georgian Chant]<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions|Georgia]]<br />
<br />
{{churches}}<br />
<br />
[[es:Iglesia Ortodoxa de Georgia]]<br />
[[fr:Église de Géorgie]]<br />
[[ro:Biserica Ortodoxă a Georgiei]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Armenian_Rite&diff=87949Armenian Rite2009-10-04T23:43:46Z<p>Fatman2021: /* Source */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Armenian Rite''' is an independent [[liturgy]]. This rite is used by both the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Orthodox]] and [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholic]] Churches; it is also the rite of a significant number of [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] Christians in the [[Republic of Georgia]]. <br />
<br />
The liturgy is patterned after the directives of [[Gregory the Illuminator|Saint Gregory the Illuminator]], founder and [[patron saint]] of The Armenian Church. Unlike the [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine Church]], churches of the Armenian rite are usually devoid of [[icon]]s and have a curtain concealing the priest and the [[altar]] from the people during parts of the [[liturgy]], an influence from early apostolic times. The use of bishop's [[mitre]] and of unleavened bread, is reminiscent of the influence Western missionaries once had upon both the [[miaphysite]] Orthodox Armenians as well as upon the Armenian Rite Catholics.<br />
<br />
== Source ==<br />
<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Rite Wikipedia - Armenian Rite]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Armenian_Rite&diff=87948Armenian Rite2009-10-04T23:43:13Z<p>Fatman2021: New page: The '''Armenian Rite''' is an independent liturgy. This rite is used by both the Armenian Orthodox and Armenian Catholic Chur...</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Armenian Rite''' is an independent [[liturgy]]. This rite is used by both the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Orthodox]] and [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholic]] Churches; it is also the rite of a significant number of [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Eastern Catholic]] Christians in the [[Republic of Georgia]]. <br />
<br />
The liturgy is patterned after the directives of [[Gregory the Illuminator|Saint Gregory the Illuminator]], founder and [[patron saint]] of The Armenian Church. Unlike the [[Byzantine Rite|Byzantine Church]], churches of the Armenian rite are usually devoid of [[icon]]s and have a curtain concealing the priest and the [[altar]] from the people during parts of the [[liturgy]], an influence from early apostolic times. The use of bishop's [[mitre]] and of unleavened bread, is reminiscent of the influence Western missionaries once had upon both the [[miaphysite]] Orthodox Armenians as well as upon the Armenian Rite Catholics.<br />
<br />
== Source ==<br />
<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Rite Armenian Rite]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=87947Old Believers2009-10-04T23:37:03Z<p>Fatman2021: /* Introductory summary of origins */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Patriarch Nikon|Nikon (1605–1681; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658)]] introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. According to the Old Believers, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [[anathema]]tized and suppressed with the support of Muscovite state power the prior liturgical rite itself as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as ''schismatics''. They became known as "Old Ritualists", a name introduced during the reign of Empress [[Catherine the Great]]. At the same time they continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
<br />
Although a portion of the population of [[Kievan Rus']] ([[Ruthenia]]) was Christian by 944, [[Knyaz]] [[Vladimir I of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, [[Ruthenia]] took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In [[1551]], the [[Stoglavy Sobor|Moscow Stoglav Church Council]] declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. [[Patriarch Filaret (Feodor Romanov)|Patriarch Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under [[Tsar Alexis of Russia|Alexis]], the second of the Romanovs, in [[1654]], a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at [[Moscow]], over which the [[Patriarch Nikon]] presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of [[1667]], attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent [[Patriarch Nikon]] was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [[Act of Uniformity]] in the [[Anglican Church]], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in [[1375]], [[Strigolniki|Karp Strigolnik]], a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in [[Russia]] is actually a historic rite of the ancient [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]]{{citation}}. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev (metropolitan)|St. Michael]], the first [[Metropolitan of Kiev]], was of [[Syrian]] origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in [[Russia]]. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in [[Antioch]] itself. However, [[Nicodemus the Hagiorite|St. Nicodemus]], in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of [[Christ]], and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
<br />
<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In [[1551]], while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in [[1654]], a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at [[Moscow]], over which the [[Patriarch Nikon]] presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in [[1667]], attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent [[Patriarch Nikon]] was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [[Act of Uniformity]] in the [[Anglican Church]], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed in the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in [[1375]], Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in [[Russia]] is actually a historic rite of the ancient [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]]. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev (metropolitan)|St. Michael]], the first [[Metropolitan of Kiev]], was of [[Syrian]] origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in [[Russia]]. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in [[Antioch]] itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder, also mentions that Christians at one time made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of [[Christ]], and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia|Alexis I]] (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''[[Typikon]]'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other [[liturgical books]] with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the [[Third Rome]] appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under [[Peter the Great]] (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under [[Catherine the Great]] (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''[[Popovtsy]]'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы ([[Bespopovtsy]] — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed [[Greek Orthodox]] bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own [[episcopate]], the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. [[Popovtsy]] have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] - The largest [[Popovtsy]] denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the [[Belokrinitskoe Soglasie]] (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to [[Bespopovtsy]].<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where [[Antichrist]] reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. [[Bespopovtsy]] have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* [[Pomortsy]] or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* [[Fedoseevtsy]] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* [[Fillipovtsy]].<br />
* [[Chasovennye]] (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as [[Semeyskie]] (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from [[Fedoseevtsy]], supported the use of [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]]'s inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns ([[troparia]]);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of [[Antichrist]]); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous [[Studion Monastery]] in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. [[Cyprian of Moscow|Cyprian]], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of [[baptism]] by three full immersions, and reject the validity of [[baptism]] by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://oldorthodoxy.wetpaint.com Ancient Orthodox Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://oldbelievers.wetpaint.com/ Old-Rite Russian Orthodox Christian Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/index.html How Old Believers make the sign of the cross]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
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[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=87776Old Believers2009-09-26T04:43:10Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]] (r. 1652-1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual reforms with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. He acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these innovations, Muscovite state power [[anathema]]tized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers" or "Old Ritualists".<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus' ==<br />
<br />
Although a portion of the population of [[Kievan Rus']] ([[Ruthenia]]) was Christian by 944, [[Knyaz]] [[Vladimir I of Kiev]], impressed by the Easter rituals of the Byzantine Church, embraced Christianity in 987. In doing so he not only formed a politically expedient alliance but invited the adoption of Greek learning and book culture. Along with the baptism, [[Ruthenia]] took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. Close connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. As the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople, they oversaw the piety of the newly installed customs and practices, and this patronage ensured that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In [[1551]], the [[Stoglavy Sobor|Moscow Stoglav Church Council]] declared in favour of revision. The council's purpose was to regulate the church's relationship to the state, reform its internal life, strengthen the authority of the bishops, and eradicate non-Christian folk customs from among the populace. It would not introduce anything new but would purify the Russian church of irregularities. The council called for many irregularities in church life to be corrected. Among other things, drunkenness among the clergy was to be eradicated, parish priests were to be better educated, and priests and laity alike were to be protected against rapacious episcopal tax collectors. "Pagan" and foreign practices popular among the laity were prohibited, such as minstrels playing at weddings and the shaving of beards. [[Patriarch Filaret (Feodor Romanov)|Patriarch Philaret (Romanov) of Moscow]], during the reign of his son Tsar Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books; and under [[Tsar Alexis of Russia|Alexis]], the second of the Romanovs, in [[1654]], a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at [[Moscow]], over which the [[Patriarch Nikon]] presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the Tsar. Macarius, the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Serbian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of the Moscow Sobor of [[1667]], attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the revision of the liturgical books of the Slavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent [[Patriarch Nikon]] was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [[Act of Uniformity]] in the [[Anglican Church]], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose on an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation Russian Orthodoxy from the Greek. The earliest controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the [[sign of the cross]] should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed by the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in [[1375]], [[Strigolniki|Karp Strigolnik]], a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in [[Russia]] is actually a historic rite of the ancient [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]]{{citation}}. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev (metropolitan)|St. Michael]], the first [[Metropolitan of Kiev]], was of [[Syrian]] origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in [[Russia]]. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in [[Antioch]] itself. However, [[Nicodemus the Hagiorite|St. Nicodemus]], in the Rudder also mentions that Christians made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of [[Christ]], and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
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<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In [[1551]], while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in [[1654]], a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at [[Moscow]], over which the [[Patriarch Nikon]] presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in [[1667]], attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent [[Patriarch Nikon]] was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [[Act of Uniformity]] in the [[Anglican Church]], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed in the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in [[1375]], Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in [[Russia]] is actually a historic rite of the ancient [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]]. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev (metropolitan)|St. Michael]], the first [[Metropolitan of Kiev]], was of [[Syrian]] origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in [[Russia]]. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in [[Antioch]] itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder, also mentions that Christians at one time made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of [[Christ]], and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia|Alexis I]] (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''[[Typikon]]'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other [[liturgical books]] with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the [[Third Rome]] appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under [[Peter the Great]] (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under [[Catherine the Great]] (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''[[Popovtsy]]'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы ([[Bespopovtsy]] — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed [[Greek Orthodox]] bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own [[episcopate]], the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. [[Popovtsy]] have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] - The largest [[Popovtsy]] denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the [[Belokrinitskoe Soglasie]] (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to [[Bespopovtsy]].<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where [[Antichrist]] reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. [[Bespopovtsy]] have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* [[Pomortsy]] or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* [[Fedoseevtsy]] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* [[Fillipovtsy]].<br />
* [[Chasovennye]] (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as [[Semeyskie]] (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from [[Fedoseevtsy]], supported the use of [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]]'s inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns ([[troparia]]);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of [[Antichrist]]); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous [[Studion Monastery]] in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. [[Cyprian of Moscow|Cyprian]], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of [[baptism]] by three full immersions, and reject the validity of [[baptism]] by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://oldorthodoxy.wetpaint.com Ancient Orthodox Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://oldbelievers.wetpaint.com/ Old-Rite Russian Orthodox Christian Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/index.html How Old Believers make the sign of the cross]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=86861Old Believers2009-08-17T00:24:35Z<p>Fatman2021: /* Revision of the Church Books */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]] (r. 1652-1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual reforms with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. He acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these innovations, Muscovite state power [[anathema]]tized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers" or "Old Ritualists".<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus ==<br />
<br />
[[Kievan Rus]] ([[Ruthenia]]) received Christianity from the Latin Varangians, and then from Bulgaria, and only after that from Byzantium (Source: The Religion of the Russian People by Pierre Pascal) during holy equal-to-the-apostles great knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev|Volodimir]]'s lifetime in 988 was the outstanding historical event. Along with the baptism, [[Ruthenia]] took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. The closest of connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. They as the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople watched the piety of the newly installed customs and practices. The very fact of the patronage above the Kiev-Ruthenian and afterwards Russian Metropolitan shows that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In [[1551]], while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in [[1654]], a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at [[Moscow]], over which the [[Patriarch Nikon]] presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with his archdeacon, [[Paul of Aleppo]], and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in [[1667]], attended by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] and the [[Patriarch of Antioch]], with delegates from both the [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]], the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent [[Patriarch Nikon]] was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and that of the nearly contemporaneous [[Act of Uniformity]] in the [[Anglican Church]], was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the [[hallelujah]] should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the [[Byzantine Rite]], or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of [[Christ]], as prescribed in the [[Armenian Rite]]. But in [[1375]], Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of [[Novgorod]], touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of [[simony]] and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
Towards the end of the 19th century, the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] realized that the forced introduction of the so-called "new rite" was carried out in a violent and uncanonical way, and that the old rite kept in [[Russia]] is actually a historic rite of the ancient [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]]. At least three Fathers of that Patriarchate (namely, [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Theodoret of Cyrus]] and [[Peter of Damascus]]) had given homilies on the sign of the cross being made with two fingers, in the manner of the Russian [[Old Believers]]. Perhaps the fact that [[Michael I of Kiev (metropolitan)|St. Michael]], the first [[Metropolitan of Kiev]], was of [[Syrian]] origin, can explain how this tradition arrived in [[Russia]]. What cannot be understood is how the tradition was lost in [[Antioch]] itself. However, St. Nicodemus, in the Rudder, also mentions that Christians at one time made the sign of the cross with two fingers, in honor of the two natures of [[Christ]], and that the current custom is now to use three fingers, for the [[Holy Trinity]].<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia|Alexis I]] (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''[[Typikon]]'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other [[liturgical books]] with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the [[Third Rome]] appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under [[Peter the Great]] (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under [[Catherine the Great]] (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''[[Popovtsy]]'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы ([[Bespopovtsy]] — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed [[Greek Orthodox]] bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own [[episcopate]], the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. [[Popovtsy]] have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] - The largest [[Popovtsy]] denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the [[Belokrinitskoe Soglasie]] (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to [[Bespopovtsy]].<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where [[Antichrist]] reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. [[Bespopovtsy]] have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* [[Pomortsy]] or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* [[Fedoseevtsy]] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* [[Fillipovtsy]].<br />
* [[Chasovennye]] (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as [[Semeyskie]] (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from [[Fedoseevtsy]], supported the use of [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]]'s inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns ([[troparia]]);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of [[Antichrist]]); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous [[Studion Monastery]] in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. [[Cyprian of Moscow|Cyprian]], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of [[baptism]] by three full immersions, and reject the validity of [[baptism]] by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://oldorthodoxy.wetpaint.com Ancient Orthodox Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://oldbelievers.wetpaint.com/ Old-Rite Russian Orthodox Christian Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/index.html How Old Believers make the sign of the cross]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=86633Old Believers2009-08-06T19:12:54Z<p>Fatman2021: /* Modern situation */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]] (r. 1652-1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual reforms with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. He acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these innovations, Muscovite state power [[anathema]]tized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers" or "Old Ritualists".<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus ==<br />
<br />
[[Kievan Rus]] ([[Ruthenia]]) received Christianity from the Latin Varangians, and then from Bulgaria, and only after that from Byzantium (Source: The Religion of the Russian People by Pierre Pascal) during holy equal-to-the-apostles great knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev|Volodimir]]'s lifetime in 988 was the outstanding historical event. Along with the baptism, [[Ruthenia]] took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. The closest of connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. They as the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople watched the piety of the newly installed customs and practices. The very fact of the patronage above the Kiev-Ruthenian and afterwards Russian Metropolitan shows that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the patriarch Nicon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, Paul of Aleppo, and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in 1667, attended by the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with delegates from Jerusalem and Constantinople, the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Nicon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the Russian church, and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the English, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the hallelujah should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the Greek ritual, or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of Christ, as prescribed in the Armenian service. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of Novgorod, touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of simony and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia|Alexis I]] (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''[[Typikon]]'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other [[liturgical books]] with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the [[Third Rome]] appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
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===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
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Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under [[Peter the Great]] (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under [[Catherine the Great]] (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
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Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island; Both near Kodiak. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''[[Popovtsy]]'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы ([[Bespopovtsy]] — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
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The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed [[Greek Orthodox]] bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own [[episcopate]], the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. [[Popovtsy]] have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
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* [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] - The largest [[Popovtsy]] denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the [[Belokrinitskoe Soglasie]] (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to [[Bespopovtsy]].<br />
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=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where [[Antichrist]] reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. [[Bespopovtsy]] have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* [[Pomortsy]] or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* [[Fedoseevtsy]] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* [[Fillipovtsy]].<br />
* [[Chasovennye]] (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as [[Semeyskie]] (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from [[Fedoseevtsy]], supported the use of [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]]'s inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns ([[troparia]]);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of [[Antichrist]]); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
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==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous [[Studion Monastery]] in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. [[Cyprian of Moscow|Cyprian]], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of [[baptism]] by three full immersions, and reject the validity of [[baptism]] by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://oldorthodoxy.wetpaint.com Ancient Orthodox Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://oldbelievers.wetpaint.com/ Old-Rite Russian Orthodox Christian Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/index.html How Old Believers make the sign of the cross]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=86548Old Believers2009-08-02T22:28:45Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
<br />
In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
<br />
Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
<br />
Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
<br />
== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]] (r. 1652-1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual reforms with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. He acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these innovations, Muscovite state power [[anathema]]tized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers" or "Old Ritualists".<br />
<br />
== Baptism of Kievan Rus ==<br />
<br />
[[Kievan Rus]] ([[Ruthenia]]) received Christianity from the Latin Varangians, and then from Bulgaria, and only after that from Byzantium (Source: The Religion of the Russian People by Pierre Pascal) during holy equal-to-the-apostles great knyaz [[Vladimir of Kiev|Volodimir]]'s lifetime in 988 was the outstanding historical event. Along with the baptism, [[Ruthenia]] took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. The closest of connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. They as the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople watched the piety of the newly installed customs and practices. The very fact of the patronage above the Kiev-Ruthenian and afterwards Russian Metropolitan shows that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Church Regulations ==<br />
<br />
In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], [[Novgorod]], [[Pskov]] and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Revision of the Church Books ==<br />
<br />
In 1551, while a council declared in favour of revision, its members made themselves ridiculous by neglecting the task, to fulminate articles against the heinous sins of shaving the beard, driving with one pole, and eating sausages. The canon against shaving is singularly expressed, as the final clause seems to assign a divine dignity to the beard. " Of all the heresies that are punished by excommunication, none is more damnable and criminal than to shave the beard. Even the blood of the martyrs is unable to redeem such a guilt; consequently, whoever shaves his beard for human considerations, violates the law, and is an enemy to God, who has created us after his own image." Philaretes, during the reign of his son Michael, took part in abortive attempts to reform the church books ; and under Alexis, the second of the Romanoffs, in 1654, a council of thirty-six bishops assembled at Moscow, over which the patriarch Nicon presided, and earnestly recommended the long-contemplated project to the attention of the czar. Macarius, the patriarch of Antioch, with his archdeacon, Paul of Aleppo, and the head of the Servian church, were present upon this occasion. At length, under the auspices of another council in 1667, attended by the patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with delegates from Jerusalem and Constantinople, the expurgation of the sacred books of the Sclavonic church was effected; and the revised texts were formally declared to be the only true, lawful, and authorised copies. Alexis in person presided over this conclave. By its voice the ambitious and turbulent Nicon was deposed from the Russian patriarchate and the canon against shaving was repealed.<br />
<br />
The effect of the above salutary measure in the Russian church, and that of the nearly contemporaneous Act of Uniformity in the English, was in some degree similar. Dissent arose upon an extensive scale, and persecution was vigorously applied to reclaim or crush the nonconformists.<br />
<br />
Internal dissensions troubled the Russo-Greek communion at an early period, leading to separation from its pale. The more ancient controversies referred to trifling or ridiculous points of difference, yet were none the less furious on account of the causes being trivial. There was warm contention whether the hallelujah should be repeated two or three times at the end of the psalms, and whether the sign of the cross should be made with three fingers, symbolising the Trinity, according to the Greek ritual, or with two fingers, in allusion to the two natures in the person of Christ, as prescribed in the Armenian service. But in 1375, Karp Strigolnik, a citizen of Novgorod, touched upon topics of greater moment. Accusing the clergy of simony and abuse of the rite of confession, he raised a violent outcry against them, and proclaimed doctrines in which the fanatical blended with the sober.<br />
<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, [[Gury of Kazan|Gury]] and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia|Alexis I]] (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''[[Typikon]]'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other [[liturgical books]] with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the [[Third Rome]] appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under [[Peter the Great]] (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under [[Catherine the Great]] (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''[[Popovtsy]]'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы ([[Bespopovtsy]] — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed [[Greek Orthodox]] bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own [[episcopate]], the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. [[Popovtsy]] have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] - The largest [[Popovtsy]] denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the [[Belokrinitskoe Soglasie]] (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to [[Bespopovtsy]].<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where [[Antichrist]] reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. [[Bespopovtsy]] have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* [[Pomortsy]] or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* [[Fedoseevtsy]] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* [[Fillipovtsy]].<br />
* [[Chasovennye]] (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as [[Semeyskie]] (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from [[Fedoseevtsy]], supported the use of [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]]'s inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns ([[troparia]]);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of [[Antichrist]]); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous [[Studion Monastery]] in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. [[Cyprian of Moscow|Cyprian]], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
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In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
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The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
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These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
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Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
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However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
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==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
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Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of [[baptism]] by three full immersions, and reject the validity of [[baptism]] by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
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==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
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==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
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==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://oldorthodoxy.wetpaint.com Ancient Orthodox Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://oldbelievers.wetpaint.com/ Old-Rite Russian Orthodox Christian Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/index.html How Old Believers make the sign of the cross]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
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[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
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[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Theodoret_of_Cyrrhus&diff=85701Theodoret of Cyrrhus2009-06-28T21:37:31Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
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<div>'''Saint Theodoret''', known as '''Theodoret of Cyrus''' or '''Cyrrhus''', (c. 393 &ndash; c. 457) was an influential author, theologian, and [[Christianity|Christian]] [[bishop]] of [[Cyrrhus%2C_Syria|Cyrrhus, Syria]] (423-457). He played a pivotal role in many early [[Byzantine_empire|Byzantine]] church controversies that led to various ecumenical acts and schisms.<br />
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==Life==<br />
According to [[Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont|Tillemont]], he was born at [[Antioch]] in 393, and died either at Cyrrhus ("about a two-days' journey east of [[Antioch]]" or eighty Roman miles), or at the [[monastery]] near [[Apamea (Syria)|Apamea]] (fifty-four miles southeast of Antioch) about 457. <br />
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The following facts about his life are gleaned mainly from his ''Epistles'' and his ''Religious History'' (''Philotheos historia''). His mother having been childless for twelve years, his birth was promised by a [[hermit]] named [[Macedonius]] on the condition of his dedication to God, whence the name Theodoret ("gift of God"). He was brought up under the care of the ascetics and acquired a very extensive classical knowledge, and, according to [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], a style of [[Atticism|Attic]] purity. That he was a personal disciple of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] and heard the orations of [[John Chrysostom]] is improbable.<br />
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At a young age he became a ''[[lector]]'' among the [[clergy]] of Antioch, then resided a while in a monastery, was a [[cleric]] at Cyrrhus, and in 423 became bishop over a [[diocese]] about forty miles square and embracing 800 parishes, but with an insignificant town as its [[episcopal see|see]] city. Theodoret, supported only by the appeals of the intimate hermits, himself in personal danger, zealously guarded purity of the doctrine. He converted more than 1,000 [[Marcionite]]s in his diocese, besides many [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Macedonians (religious group)|Macedonians]]; more than 200 copies of [[Tatian]]'s ''Diatessaron'' he retired from the churches; and he erected churches and supplied them with [[relic]]s. <br />
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His philanthropic and economic interests were extensive and varied: he endeavored to secure relief for the people oppressed with taxation; he divided his inheritance among the poor; from his episcopal revenues he erected baths, bridges, halls, and aqueducts; he summoned [[rhetoric]]ians and [[physician]]s, and reminded the officials of their duties. To the persecuted Christians of [[Iran|Persia]]n [[Armenia]] he sent letters of encouragement, and to the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Celestiacus]], who had fled the rule of the [[Vandals]], he gave refuge.<br />
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==The Nestorian controversy==<br />
Theodoret stands out prominently in the [[christology|christological]] controversies aroused by [[Cyril of Alexandria]]. Theodoret shared in the petition of [[John I of Antioch]] to [[Nestorius]] to approve of the term ''theotokos'' ("mother of God"), and upon the request of John wrote against Cyril's ''[[anathema]]s''.<br />
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He may have prepared the Antiochian symbol which was to secure the emperor's true understanding of the [[Nicene Creed]], and he was a member and spokesman of the deputation of eight from Antioch called by the emperor to [[Chalcedon]]. To the condemnation of Nestorius he could not assent. John, reconciled to Cyril by the emperor's order, sought to bring Theodoret to submission by entrenching upon his [[eparchy]]. <br />
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Theodoret was determined to preserve the peace of the Church by seeking the adoption of a formula avoiding the unconditional condemnation of Nestorius, and toward the close of 434 strove earnestly for the reconciliation between the Eastern churches. But Cyril refused to compromise and when he opened his attack (437) upon [[Diodorus of Tarsus]] and Theodore, John sided with them and Theodoret assumed the defense of the Antiochian party (c. 439). [[Domnus II]], the successor of John, took him as his counselor. After the death of Cyril, adherents of the Antiochian theology were appointed to bishoprics. [[Irenaeus of Tyre|Irenaeus]] the friend of Nestorius, with the cooperation of Theodoret, became [[bishop]] of Tyre, in spite of the protests of [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]], Cyril's successor, who now turned specially against Theodoret; and, by preferring the charge that he taught two sons in [[Christ]], he secured the order from the court confining Theodoret to Cyrrhus.<br />
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Theodoret now composed the ''Eranistes'' (see below). In vain were his efforts at court at self-justification against the charges of Dioscurus, as well as the countercharge of Domnus against [[Eutyches]] of [[Apollinarism]]. The court excluded Theodoret from the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] in 449 because of his antagonism to Cyril. Here, because of his ''Epistle 151'' against Cyril and his defense of Diodorus and Theodore, he was condemned without a hearing and [[excommunicated]] and his writings were directed to be burned. Even Domnus gave his assent. <br />
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Theodoret was compelled to leave Cyrrhus and retire to his monastery at Apamea. He made an appeal to [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]], but not until after the death of [[Theodosius II]] in 450 was his appeal for a revocation of the judgments against him granted by imperial edict. He was ordered to participate in the [[Council of Chalcedon]], which created violent opposition. He was first to take part only as accuser, yet among the bishops. Then he was constrained ([[October 26]], [[451]]) by the friends of Dioscurus to pronounce the ''anathema'' over Nestorius. His conduct shows (though hindered from a statement to that effect) that he performed this with his previous reservation; namely, without application beyond the teaching of two sons in Christ and the denial of the ''theotokos''. Upon this he was declared [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and rehabilitated. <br />
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The only thing known concerning him following the Council of Chalcedon is the letter of Leo charging him to guard the Chalcedonian victory (''PG'', lxxxiii. 1319 sqq.). With Diodorus and Theodore he was no less hated by the [[Monophysite]]s than Nestorius himself, and held by them and their friends as a heretic. The [[Three-Chapter Controversy]] led to the condemnation of his writings against Cyril in the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] (553).<br />
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==Works==<br />
===Exegetical===<br />
In literature Theodoret devoted himself first of all to [[exegesis]]. The [[Bible|Scripture]] was his only authority{{Fact|date=August 2008}}, and his representation of orthodox doctrine consists of a collocation of Scripture passages. The genuineness and relative chronology of his commentaries is proven by references in the latter to the earlier. The commentary on the ''[[Song of Songs]]'', written while he was a young bishop, though not before 430, precedes ''[[Psalms]]''; the commentaries on the prophets were begun with ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'', followed by ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]'', and then the ''[[Minor Prophets]]''. Next that on the ''Psalms'' was completed before 436; and those on ''[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]'', ''[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]'', and the ''[[Pauline Epistles]]'' (including ''[[Book of Hebrews|Hebrews]]''), before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical works were the interpretations of difficult passages in the ''[[Octateuch]]'' and ''Quaestiones'' dealing with the books of ''[[Book of Samuel|Samuel]]'', ''[[Books of Kings|Kings]]'', and ''[[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]'', written about 452 to 453. <br />
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Excepting the commentary on ''Isaiah'' (fragments preserved in the ''[[Catena (Biblical commentary)|catenae]]'') and on ''[[Book of Galatians|Galatians]]'' ii.6-13, the exegetical writings of Theodoret are extant. Exegetical material on the ''[[Gospels]]'' under his name in the ''catenae'' may have come from his other works, and foreign interpolations occur in his comments on the ''Octateuch''. <br />
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The Biblical authors are, for Theodoret, merely the mouthpieces of the [[Holy Spirit]], though they do not lose their individual peculiarities. By the unavoidable imperfection of the translations, he states, the understanding is encumbered. Not familiar with [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], Theodoret uses the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translation, the Greek versions, and the ''[[Septuagint]]''. <br />
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In principle his exegesis is grammatical-historical; and he criticizes the intrusion of the author's own ideas. His aim is to avoid a one-sidedness of literalness as well as of [[allegory]]. Hence he protests against the attributing of ''The Song of Songs'' to [[Solomon]] and the like as degrading the Holy Spirit. Rather is it to be said that the Scripture speaks often "figuratively" and "in riddles." In the [[Old Testament]] everything has typological significance and prophetically it embodies already the Christian doctrine. The divine illumination affords the right understanding after the [[apostolic]] suggestion and the [[New Testament]] fulfilment. Valuable though not binding is the exegetical tradition of the ecclesiastical teachers. Theodoret likes to choose the best among various interpretations before him, preferably Theodore's, and supplements from his own. He is clear and simple in thought and statement; and his merit is to have rescued the exegetical heritage of the [[school of Antioch]] as a whole for the Christian Church.<br />
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===Apologetic, historical===<br />
Among [[apologetics|apologetic]] writings was the ''Ad quaestiones magorum'' (429-436), now lost, in which he justified the [[Old Testament]] sacrifices as alternatives in opposition to the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] idolatry (question 1, Lev., ''PG'', lxxx. 297 sqq.), and exposed the fables of the [[Magi]] who worshiped the elements (''Church History'' v. 38). <br />
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''De providentia'' consists of apologetic discourses, proving the divine providence from the physical order (chapters i-iv), and from the moral and social order (chapters vi-x). <br />
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The ''Cure of the Greek Maladies or Knowledge of the Gospel Truth from the Greek Philosophy,'' of twelve discourses, was an attempt to prove the truth of Christianity from [[Greek philosophy]] and in contrast with the pagan ideas and practises. The truth is self-consistent where it is not obscured with error and approves itself as the power of life; philosophy is only a presentiment of it. This work is distinguished for clearness of arrangement and style. <br />
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The ''Church History'' of Theodoret, which begins with the rise of Arianism and closes with the death of Theodore in 429, falls far behind those of [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and [[Sozomen]]. It contains many sources otherwise lost, specially letters on the Arian controversy; but it is defective in historical sense and chronological accuracy, and on account of Theodoret's inclination to embellishment and miraculous narrative, and preference for the personal. Original material of Antiochian information appears chiefly in the latter books.<br />
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Theodoret's sources are in dispute. According to [[Henri Valois|Valesius]] these were mainly Socrates and<br />
Sozomen; [[Albert Guldenpenning]]'s thorough research placed [[Rufinus]] first, and next to him, [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], [[Athanasius]], Sozomen, [[Sabinus (4th century)|Sabinus]], [[Philostorgius]], [[Gregory Nazianzen]], and, least of all, Socrates. N. Glubokovskij counts Eusebius, Rufinus, Philostorgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus. <br />
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The ''Religious History,'' with an appendix on [[divine love]], contains the biographies of thirty (ten living) ascetics, held forth as religious models. It is a document of remarkable significance for understanding the complexities of the role of early monastics, both in society and in the church; it is also remarkable for presenting a model of ascetic authority which runs strongly against Athanasius's ''Life of Antony''. Upon the request of a high official named [[Sporacius]], Theodoret compiled a ''Compendium of Heretical Accounts'' (''Haereticarum fabularum compendium''), including a [[heresiology]] (books i-iv) and a "compendium of divine dogmas" (book v), which, apart from [[Origen]]'s ''De principiis'' and the theological work of [[John of Damascus]], is the only systematic representation of the theology of the [[Church Fathers|Greek Fathers]]. <br />
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Theodoret's Correspondence (mentioned below) is a primary source for the development of Christological issues between the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon and illuminates current administrative and social problems.<br />
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===Dogmatic===<br />
Among dogmatic treatises Theodoret mentions (''Epist.'' cxiii, cxvi) having written against [[Arius]] and [[Eunomius of Cyzicus|Eunomius]], probably one work, to which were joined the three treatises against the Macedonians. There were, besides, two works against the Apollinarians, and of the ''Opus adversus Marcionem'' nothing has been preserved. The treatises ''On the Trinity'' and ''On the Divine Dispensation'' (cf. ''Peri theologias kai tes theias enanthropeseos; Epist. cxiii''), assigned by A. Ehrhard to the work ''On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity'' and ''On the Incarnation of the Lord'' of [[Cyril of Alexandria]], certainly belong to the Antiochian School and to Theodoret. To the same belong cap. xiii-xv, xvii, and brief parts of other chapters of the fragments which [[Jean Garnier]] (''Auctarium'') included under the title, ''Pentology of Theodoret on the Incarnation'' as well as three of the five fragments referred by [[Marius Mercator]] to the fifth book of some writing of Theodoret. They are [[polemic]]s against Arianism and Apollinarianism.<br />
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Theodoret's ''Refutation'' of the twelve ''anathemas'' of Cyril is preserved in the antipolemic of Cyril (''PG'', cxxvi. 392 sqq.). He detects Apollinarianism in Cyril's teaching, and declines a "contracting into one" of two natures of the only begotten, as much as a separation into two sons (''Epist.'' Cxliii). Instead of a "union according to [[hypostases]]," he would accept only one that "manifests the essential properties or modes of the natures." The man united to [[God]] was born of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]]; between God the ''[[Logos]]'' and the form of a servant a distinction must be drawn. Only minor fragments (cf. ''Epist.'' xvi) of Theodoret's defense of Diodorus and Theodore (438-444) have been preserved (Glubokovskij ii. 142).<br />
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His chief christological work is the ''Eranistes etoi polymorphos'' ("Beggar or Multiform") in three dialogues, describing the [[Monophysite]]s as beggars passing off their doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical sources and himself as the orthodox.<br />
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God is immutable also in becoming man, the two natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is ever immortal and impassive. Each nature remained "pure" after the union, retaining its properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and intermixture. Of the twenty-seven orations in defense of various propositions, the first six agree in their given content with Theodoret. A few extracts from the five orations on Chrysostom were preserved by Photius (codex 273). Most valuable are the numerous letters (Eng. transl., ''[[NPNF]]'', 2 ser., iii. 250-348).<br />
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== Translations ==<br />
* Translations of Theodoret's writings can be found in [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]]. A bilingual edition of the Eranistes was published by Oxford University Press in 1974<br />
*Bilingual editions (Greek text with parallel French translation) of several of the texts mentioned above have been published in recent years in ''[[Sources Chrétiennes]]''.<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoret Wikipedia - Theodoret]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_author/64/Theodoret_of_Cyr.html<br />
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-03/TOC.htm Theodoret's works]<br />
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theodoret ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 11th edition]<br />
*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_20_0393-0466-_Theodoretus_Cyrrhi_Episcopus.html Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca, with analytical indexes and concordances made on the whole writings]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Theodoret_of_Cyrrhus&diff=85700Theodoret of Cyrrhus2009-06-28T21:34:57Z<p>Fatman2021: New page: '''Saint Theodoret''', known as '''Theodoret of Cyrus''' or '''Cyrrhus''', (c. 393 &ndash; c. 457) was an influential author, theologian, and Christian bishop of [[Cyr...</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Saint Theodoret''', known as '''Theodoret of Cyrus''' or '''Cyrrhus''', (c. 393 &ndash; c. 457) was an influential author, theologian, and [[Christianity|Christian]] [[bishop]] of [[Cyrrhus%2C_Syria|Cyrrhus, Syria]] (423-457). He played a pivotal role in many early [[Byzantine_empire|Byzantine]] church controversies that led to various ecumenical acts and schisms.<br />
<br />
==Life==<br />
According to [[Louis-Sébastien Le Nain de Tillemont|Tillemont]], he was born at [[Antioch]] in 393, and died either at Cyrrhus ("about a two-days' journey east of [[Antioch]]" or eighty Roman miles), or at the [[monastery]] near [[Apamea (Syria)|Apamea]] (fifty-four miles southeast of Antioch) about 457. <br />
<br />
The following facts about his life are gleaned mainly from his ''Epistles'' and his ''Religious History'' (''Philotheos historia''). His mother having been childless for twelve years, his birth was promised by a [[hermit]] named [[Macedonius]] on the condition of his dedication to God, whence the name Theodoret ("gift of God"). He was brought up under the care of the ascetics and acquired a very extensive classical knowledge, and, according to [[Photios I of Constantinople|Photius]], a style of [[Atticism|Attic]] purity. That he was a personal disciple of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] and heard the orations of [[John Chrysostom]] is improbable.<br />
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At a young age he became a ''[[lector]]'' among the [[clergy]] of Antioch, then resided a while in a monastery, was a [[cleric]] at Cyrrhus, and in 423 became bishop over a [[diocese]] about forty miles square and embracing 800 parishes, but with an insignificant town as its [[episcopal see|see]] city. Theodoret, supported only by the appeals of the intimate hermits, himself in personal danger, zealously guarded purity of the doctrine. He converted more than 1,000 [[Marcionite]]s in his diocese, besides many [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Macedonians (religious group)|Macedonians]]; more than 200 copies of [[Tatian]]'s ''Diatessaron'' he retired from the churches; and he erected churches and supplied them with [[relic]]s. <br />
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His philanthropic and economic interests were extensive and varied: he endeavored to secure relief for the people oppressed with taxation; he divided his inheritance among the poor; from his episcopal revenues he erected baths, bridges, halls, and aqueducts; he summoned [[rhetoric]]ians and [[physician]]s, and reminded the officials of their duties. To the persecuted Christians of [[Iran|Persia]]n [[Armenia]] he sent letters of encouragement, and to the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] [[Celestiacus]], who had fled the rule of the [[Vandals]], he gave refuge.<br />
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==The Nestorian controversy==<br />
Theodoret stands out prominently in the [[christology|christological]] controversies aroused by [[Cyril of Alexandria]]. Theodoret shared in the petition of [[John I of Antioch]] to [[Nestorius]] to approve of the term ''theotokos'' ("mother of God"), and upon the request of John wrote against Cyril's ''[[anathema]]s''.<br />
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He may have prepared the Antiochian symbol which was to secure the emperor's true understanding of the [[Nicene Creed]], and he was a member and spokesman of the deputation of eight from Antioch called by the emperor to [[Chalcedon]]. To the condemnation of Nestorius he could not assent. John, reconciled to Cyril by the emperor's order, sought to bring Theodoret to submission by entrenching upon his [[eparchy]]. <br />
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Theodoret was determined to preserve the peace of the Church by seeking the adoption of a formula avoiding the unconditional condemnation of Nestorius, and toward the close of 434 strove earnestly for the reconciliation between the Eastern churches. But Cyril refused to compromise and when he opened his attack (437) upon [[Diodorus of Tarsus]] and Theodore, John sided with them and Theodoret assumed the defense of the Antiochian party (c. 439). [[Domnus II]], the successor of John, took him as his counselor. After the death of Cyril, adherents of the Antiochian theology were appointed to bishoprics. [[Irenaeus of Tyre|Irenaeus]] the friend of Nestorius, with the cooperation of Theodoret, became [[bishop]] of Tyre, in spite of the protests of [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]], Cyril's successor, who now turned specially against Theodoret; and, by preferring the charge that he taught two sons in [[Christ]], he secured the order from the court confining Theodoret to Cyrrhus.<br />
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Theodoret now composed the ''Eranistes'' (see below). In vain were his efforts at court at self-justification against the charges of Dioscurus, as well as the countercharge of Domnus against [[Eutyches]] of [[Apollinarism]]. The court excluded Theodoret from the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] in 449 because of his antagonism to Cyril. Here, because of his ''Epistle 151'' against Cyril and his defense of Diodorus and Theodore, he was condemned without a hearing and [[excommunicated]] and his writings were directed to be burned. Even Domnus gave his assent. <br />
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Theodoret was compelled to leave Cyrrhus and retire to his monastery at Apamea. He made an appeal to [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]], but not until after the death of [[Theodosius II]] in 450 was his appeal for a revocation of the judgments against him granted by imperial edict. He was ordered to participate in the [[Council of Chalcedon]], which created violent opposition. He was first to take part only as accuser, yet among the bishops. Then he was constrained ([[October 26]], [[451]]) by the friends of Dioscurus to pronounce the ''anathema'' over Nestorius. His conduct shows (though hindered from a statement to that effect) that he performed this with his previous reservation; namely, without application beyond the teaching of two sons in Christ and the denial of the ''theotokos''. Upon this he was declared [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and rehabilitated. <br />
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The only thing known concerning him following the Council of Chalcedon is the letter of Leo charging him to guard the Chalcedonian victory (''PG'', lxxxiii. 1319 sqq.). With Diodorus and Theodore he was no less hated by the [[Monophysite]]s than Nestorius himself, and held by them and their friends as a heretic. The [[Three-Chapter Controversy]] led to the condemnation of his writings against Cyril in the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] (553).<br />
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==Works==<br />
===Exegetical===<br />
In literature Theodoret devoted himself first of all to [[exegesis]]. The [[Bible|Scripture]] was his only authority{{Fact|date=August 2008}}, and his representation of orthodox doctrine consists of a collocation of Scripture passages. The genuineness and relative chronology of his commentaries is proven by references in the latter to the earlier. The commentary on the ''[[Song of Songs]]'', written while he was a young bishop, though not before 430, precedes ''[[Psalms]]''; the commentaries on the prophets were begun with ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'', followed by ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]'', and then the ''[[Minor Prophets]]''. Next that on the ''Psalms'' was completed before 436; and those on ''[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]'', ''[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]'', and the ''[[Pauline Epistles]]'' (including ''[[Book of Hebrews|Hebrews]]''), before 448. Theodoret's last exegetical works were the interpretations of difficult passages in the ''[[Octateuch]]'' and ''Quaestiones'' dealing with the books of ''[[Book of Samuel|Samuel]]'', ''[[Books of Kings|Kings]]'', and ''[[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]'', written about 452 to 453. <br />
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Excepting the commentary on ''Isaiah'' (fragments preserved in the ''[[Catena (Biblical commentary)|catenae]]'') and on ''[[Book of Galatians|Galatians]]'' ii.6-13, the exegetical writings of Theodoret are extant. Exegetical material on the ''[[Gospels]]'' under his name in the ''catenae'' may have come from his other works, and foreign interpolations occur in his comments on the ''Octateuch''. <br />
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The Biblical authors are, for Theodoret, merely the mouthpieces of the [[Holy Spirit]], though they do not lose their individual peculiarities. By the unavoidable imperfection of the translations, he states, the understanding is encumbered. Not familiar with [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], Theodoret uses the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translation, the Greek versions, and the ''[[Septuagint]]''. <br />
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In principle his exegesis is grammatical-historical; and he criticizes the intrusion of the author's own ideas. His aim is to avoid a one-sidedness of literalness as well as of [[allegory]]. Hence he protests against the attributing of ''The Song of Songs'' to [[Solomon]] and the like as degrading the Holy Spirit. Rather is it to be said that the Scripture speaks often "figuratively" and "in riddles." In the [[Old Testament]] everything has typological significance and prophetically it embodies already the Christian doctrine. The divine illumination affords the right understanding after the [[apostolic]] suggestion and the [[New Testament]] fulfilment. Valuable though not binding is the exegetical tradition of the ecclesiastical teachers. Theodoret likes to choose the best among various interpretations before him, preferably Theodore's, and supplements from his own. He is clear and simple in thought and statement; and his merit is to have rescued the exegetical heritage of the [[school of Antioch]] as a whole for the Christian Church.<br />
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===Apologetic, historical===<br />
Among [[apologetics|apologetic]] writings was the ''Ad quaestiones magorum'' (429-436), now lost, in which he justified the [[Old Testament]] sacrifices as alternatives in opposition to the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] idolatry (question 1, Lev., ''PG'', lxxx. 297 sqq.), and exposed the fables of the [[Magi]] who worshiped the elements (''Church History'' v. 38). <br />
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''De providentia'' consists of apologetic discourses, proving the divine providence from the physical order (chapters i-iv), and from the moral and social order (chapters vi-x). <br />
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The ''Cure of the Greek Maladies or Knowledge of the Gospel Truth from the Greek Philosophy,'' of twelve discourses, was an attempt to prove the truth of Christianity from [[Greek philosophy]] and in contrast with the pagan ideas and practises. The truth is self-consistent where it is not obscured with error and approves itself as the power of life; philosophy is only a presentiment of it. This work is distinguished for clearness of arrangement and style. <br />
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The ''Church History'' of Theodoret, which begins with the rise of Arianism and closes with the death of Theodore in 429, falls far behind those of [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and [[Sozomen]]. It contains many sources otherwise lost, specially letters on the Arian controversy; but it is defective in historical sense and chronological accuracy, and on account of Theodoret's inclination to embellishment and miraculous narrative, and preference for the personal. Original material of Antiochian information appears chiefly in the latter books.<br />
<br />
Theodoret's sources are in dispute. According to [[Henri Valois|Valesius]] these were mainly Socrates and<br />
Sozomen; [[Albert Guldenpenning]]'s thorough research placed [[Rufinus]] first, and next to him, [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], [[Athanasius]], Sozomen, [[Sabinus (4th century)|Sabinus]], [[Philostorgius]], [[Gregory Nazianzen]], and, least of all, Socrates. N. Glubokovskij counts Eusebius, Rufinus, Philostorgius, and, perhaps, Sabinus. <br />
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The ''Religious History,'' with an appendix on [[divine love]], contains the biographies of thirty (ten living) ascetics, held forth as religious models. It is a document of remarkable significance for understanding the complexities of the role of early monastics, both in society and in the church; it is also remarkable for presenting a model of ascetic authority which runs strongly against Athanasius's ''Life of Antony''. Upon the request of a high official named [[Sporacius]], Theodoret compiled a ''Compendium of Heretical Accounts'' (''Haereticarum fabularum compendium''), including a [[heresiology]] (books i-iv) and a "compendium of divine dogmas" (book v), which, apart from [[Origen]]'s ''De principiis'' and the theological work of [[John of Damascus]], is the only systematic representation of the theology of the [[Church Fathers|Greek Fathers]]. <br />
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Theodoret's Correspondence (mentioned below) is a primary source for the development of Christological issues between the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon and illuminates current administrative and social problems.<br />
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===Dogmatic===<br />
Among dogmatic treatises Theodoret mentions (''Epist.'' cxiii, cxvi) having written against [[Arius]] and [[Eunomius of Cyzicus|Eunomius]], probably one work, to which were joined the three treatises against the Macedonians. There were, besides, two works against the Apollinarians, and of the ''Opus adversus Marcionem'' nothing has been preserved. The treatises ''On the Trinity'' and ''On the Divine Dispensation'' (cf. ''Peri theologias kai tes theias enanthropeseos; Epist. cxiii''), assigned by A. Ehrhard to the work ''On the Holy and Life-giving Trinity'' and ''On the Incarnation of the Lord'' of [[Cyril of Alexandria]], certainly belong to the Antiochian School and to Theodoret. To the same belong cap. xiii-xv, xvii, and brief parts of other chapters of the fragments which [[Jean Garnier]] (''Auctarium'') included under the title, ''Pentology of Theodoret on the Incarnation'' as well as three of the five fragments referred by [[Marius Mercator]] to the fifth book of some writing of Theodoret. They are [[polemic]]s against Arianism and Apollinarianism.<br />
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Theodoret's ''Refutation'' of the twelve ''anathemas'' of Cyril is preserved in the antipolemic of Cyril (''PG'', cxxvi. 392 sqq.). He detects Apollinarianism in Cyril's teaching, and declines a "contracting into one" of two natures of the only begotten, as much as a separation into two sons (''Epist.'' Cxliii). Instead of a "union according to [[hypostases]]," he would accept only one that "manifests the essential properties or modes of the natures." The man united to [[God]] was born of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]]; between God the ''[[Logos]]'' and the form of a servant a distinction must be drawn. Only minor fragments (cf. ''Epist.'' xvi) of Theodoret's defense of Diodorus and Theodore (438-444) have been preserved (Glubokovskij ii. 142).<br />
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His chief christological work is the ''Eranistes etoi polymorphos'' ("Beggar or Multiform") in three dialogues, describing the [[Monophysite]]s as beggars passing off their doctrines gathered by scraps from diverse heretical sources and himself as the orthodox.<br />
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God is immutable also in becoming man, the two natures are separate in Christ, and God the Logos is ever immortal and impassive. Each nature remained "pure" after the union, retaining its properties to the exclusion of all transmutation and intermixture. Of the twenty-seven orations in defense of various propositions, the first six agree in their given content with Theodoret. A few extracts from the five orations on Chrysostom were preserved by Photius (codex 273). Most valuable are the numerous letters (Eng. transl., ''[[NPNF]]'', 2 ser., iii. 250-348).<br />
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== Translations ==<br />
* Translations of Theodoret's writings can be found in [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]]. A bilingual edition of the Eranistes was published by Oxford University Press in 1974<br />
*Bilingual editions (Greek text with parallel French translation) of several of the texts mentioned above have been published in recent years in ''[[Sources Chrétiennes]]''.<br />
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==External links==<br />
*http://www.crossroadsinitiative.com/library_author/64/Theodoret_of_Cyr.html<br />
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-03/TOC.htm Theodoret's works]<br />
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Theodoret ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 11th edition]<br />
*[http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/30_20_0393-0466-_Theodoretus_Cyrrhi_Episcopus.html Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca, with analytical indexes and concordances made on the whole writings]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Sign_of_the_Cross&diff=85699Sign of the Cross2009-06-28T21:33:21Z<p>Fatman2021: /* How to */</p>
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<div>[[Image:Hill of Crosses.jpg|right|thumb|The Hill of Crosses in Lithuania contains thousands of copies of the foremost symbol of the Faith.]]<br />
The '''Sign of the Cross''' is a symbolic ritual gesture which marks the four points of the [[Cross]] on [[Golgotha|Calvary]] over one's body. It also represents loving [[God]] with all one's heart, soul, mind and strength. The sign of the cross is most often made at the name of the [[Holy Trinity]], to show reverence for a saint, holy object, or person, at the beginning or end of a prayer, to show humility or agreement, or on numerous other occasions which may vary slightly according to regional/ethnic practice or personal piety. Some Orthodox may make the sign of the cross a hundred or more times during a [[Divine Liturgy]] or lengthy service.<br />
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==How to==<br />
'''''Greek and Latin Rites:''''' <br />
In general Orthodox practice, the right hand is used. The thumb, index, and middle finger are brought to a point. They are then placed on the forehead after that moved down to the sternum. Finally the hand is moved to the right shoulder and horizontally across to the left. [[Oriental Orthodox]] and Western Christians, however, go in reverse order on this last step, from left to right. As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "In the name of the Father"; at the sternum, "and of the Son"; and across the shoulders, "and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." There are variations that occur. For example, some may mark a very large cross, or a very small one. Some may say "and of the Holy ''Spirit''" across the shoulders. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may return to the sternum. It may be accompanied instead at times with the words of the [[Jesus Prayer]] in some form, or simply "[[Lord]], have mercy." The thumb, index and middle finger brought to a point symbolize the [[Trinity]], three persons sharing a single essence. The remaining two fingers are kept pressed close together and to the palm, representing the human and divine natures united together in [[Jesus Christ]].<br />
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[[Image:2finger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Old Believers|Russian]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Rites]]]]'''''Russian and Armenian Rites*:''''' As one moves through the Sign, one recites, at the forehead, "Lord"; at the stomach, "Jesus Christ"; on the right shoulder, "Son of God"; and on the left shoulder, "have mercy on us." followed by a bow (to the ground during Great Lent). Joining two fingers together&mdash;the index and the middle finger&mdash;and extending them, with the middle finger slightly bent, represents the two natures of Christ: his divinity and his humanity. The index finger represents his divinity, while the middle finger represents his humanity. The bending of the middle finger may be interpreted that he bowed the heavens and came down upon the earth for our salvation.<br />
'''''*''''' Armenians cross themselves left to right<br />
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[[Theodoret]] (393–457) gave the following instruction:<br />
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<blockquote><br />
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divvinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers.<br />
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You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.<br />
</blockquote><br />
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==History==<br />
There is no dispute over the centrality of the Cross in the spirituality and understanding of the Church. The first definitive written records of Christians “making the sign of the Cross” come from the late 2nd and early 3rd centuries. Scholars have long noted that practices/beliefs were assumed and already well in effect (like the Scriptures) by the time they were in written form.<br />
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The current evidence is that the sign of the Cross was traced with one finger (most likely the thumb) on the forehead (and over the mouth when reading Scripture) and over anyone or anything Christians wished to consecrate. The Cross was traced with the right hand (unless one was disabled, etc.), which itself symbolized intimacy with the Christ “who sits at the right hand of God.”<br />
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The making the sign of the Cross on one’s forehead corresponds with the ancient cultures of the Scriptures (e.g. Genesis 4; Ezekiel 9). Marks on the forehead conspicuously display and proclaim the spiritual condition or identity of the person as seen and identified by God. Phylacteries (small leather pouches with symbols of the Torah inside them) were worn around the right hand and forehead of the pious Jew. In the New Testament, marks on the forehead or right hand identified people with God or alignment with the antichrist. On the forehead of [[martyr]]ed Christians (Revelation 14 & 22), it symbolized the very Name of God Himself. It was easy to equate making the sign of the Cross on the forehead with the Greek letter “X” (chi - the first letter of the name of Christ in Greek) as it was made with the same gesture.<br />
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By the 4th century, the sign of the Cross began to be traced by two (the index and middle) fingers. It also reflected how [[bishop]]s or (beginning with the 4th century) [[presbyter]]s (when they began to function as [[priest]]s) blessed others; the classic Roman gesture for public speaking was the two fingers extended. By the 8th century, the two fingers came to symbolize the two natures of Christ and to distinguish Christians in the East under Islamic rule from Muslims who, as some sources from that time show, lifted “one finger when asking Allah for forgiveness.”<br />
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Evidence from the 8th century shows the shift of tracing the sign of the Cross to over the body in the wake of the [[Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic]] Controversy. In destroying/removing [[icon]]s from churches, the iconoclasts replaced them with paintings/mosaics of large Crosses (usually a major sized one in the [[apse]] of the [[Altar]]), a symbol with which all, iconoclasts and [[Iconodule|iconophiles]] (lovers of icons), could agree. With no icons in the churches, other symbols (like the making of the sign of the Cross) were greatly magnified by iconoclasts to show that they were not trying to be impious. While Iconoclasm was heretical, the symbol of the Cross was not. After the controversy ended with the [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]] (787), iconophiles continued the practice of tracing the sign of the Cross over the body (head to heart to shoulders—right to left, as when traced on the forehead, in both East and West) with the two fingers.<br />
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By mid 9th century the “three fingers” are replacing the “two finger sign” (though in the East it did not become universal until after the 17th century following the Old Believer Schism in Russia), expanding the focus that through the crucified Jesus we enter communion with the Holy Trinity. In the 13th century in the West, we have the first mention of some who “make the sign of the Cross from the left to the right,” the reasons varying from crossing from misery (left) to glory (right) to mirroring the priest blessing them. Oriental Orthodox Christians (Coptic, Armenian, etc.) cross themselves left to right, seeing the meaning as praying that they not be on the left but on the right of the Judgment Seat (whether this developed independently or as a result of later Western/Latin influence is, as of yet, historically unclear). Later centuries would see the West become universal in not only crossing from left to right but also in changing from using the three fingers to using the whole (open) hand.<br />
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Regardless of how the Cross was (is) traced in the various traditions, the Church has understood its expression as concretely identifying oneself with the Lord who, through His crucifixion, fully participates in our humanity, which then, as seen in the resurrection-ascension, brings us to organically participate in the life of the Trinity. The Cross symbolizes (“brings together”) God’s organic descent into death and darkness, through which we are given back to Him. It also symbolizes our embracing the spiritual battle within the deserts of our hearts and choosing to see things from the perspective of the God who shows His all-powerful and sovereign Love by giving up control of His very life on the Cross.<br />
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==Use of the sign==<br />
In Eastern Orthodox prayers, the sign of the cross is usually made whenever all three persons of the [[Trinity]] are addressed, or even alluded to. Before commencing any prayer, in fact, the Sign is typically made. Upon entering a church, and the sanctuary within the church, one will make the Sign partly as an outward sign of reverence and [[veneration]]. Orthodox laymen will make the Sign as one way of venerating an [[icon]]; Priests have many more specific occasions upon which to make the Sign. Many members of the Faith will make the Sign in a way that may seem idiomatic to some: for example, if a member is exposed to blasphemy, he or she may make the Sign, partly to suggest subtly and politely to the speaker that an offense has been committed. Some members of the Faith will use the Sign in what almost appears to be a wish for luck; it may be that, or a part of an unsaid prayer for God's blessing, as when beginning a journey or a sports competition.<br />
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The Sign of the Cross has minor variants as well: it can be made in the air to bless objects, and it may trace a very small trajectory, such as on the forehead (as the earliest descriptions of the Sign suggest). For a member of the Faith, perhaps the essential element of the Sign is that it physically indicates the direct relevance of the Cross, of the Sacrifice of [[Jesus]], to one's person or surroundings. It is an engagement of the body that affirms what the faithful professes. It is also a sign to others of what one professes.<br />
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==Sources==<br />
*[[w:Sign of the cross|''Sign of the cross'' at Wikipedia]]<br />
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13785a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: The Sign of the Cross] ([[Roman Catholic]])<br />
*[http://www.catholicapologetics.net/apolo_140.htm The Fathers on the Sign of the Cross] (Traditional Catholic)<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/ On making the Sign of The Cross] ([[Old Believers]])<br />
*[http://mymartyrdom.com/c.htm Sign of The Cross] (Old Believers)<br />
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[[Category:Church Life]]<br />
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[[fr:Signe de la Croix]]<br />
[[ro:Semnul crucii]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Old_Believers&diff=82284Old Believers2009-04-08T20:28:17Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
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<div>[[Image:Boyarynja Morozova.jpg|frame|Detail of the painting ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyarynya_Morozova Boyarynya Morozova]'' by Vasily Surikov depicting the defiant Boyarynya arrested by Tsarist authorities in 1671. She holds two fingers raised: a hint of the old (i.e. "proper") way of [[Sign of the cross|cross-signing]] oneself: with two fingers, rather than with three.]]<br />
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In the context of Russian Orthodox church history, the '''Old Believers''' (Russian: ''старове́ры'' or ''старообря́дцы'') became separated after 1666-1667 from the hierarchy of the [[Church of Russia]] as a protest against church reforms introduced by [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]].<br />
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Old Believers continue liturgical practices which the Russian Orthodox Church maintained before the implementation of these reforms. Because of the use of these older liturgical practices, they are also known as ''Old Ritualists''.<br />
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Russian-speakers refer to the schism itself as ''raskol'' ('''раскол''' - etymologically indicating a "cleaving-apart").<br />
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== Introductory summary of origins==<br />
In 1652, [[Patriarch]] [[Nikon of Moscow]] (r. 1652-1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual reforms with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. He acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. After the implementation of these innovations, Muscovite state power [[anathema]]tized and suppressed those who acted contrary to them. These traditionalists became known as "Old Believers" or "Old Ritualists".<br />
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== Baptism of Kievan Rus ==<br />
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[[Kievan Rus]] ([[Ruthenia]]) received Christianity from the Latin Varangians, and then from Bulgaria, and only after that from Byzantium (Source: The Religion of the Russian People by Pierre Pascal) during holy equal-to-the-apostles great [[knyaz]] [[Vladimir the Great|Volodimir]]'s lifetime in 988 was the outstanding historical event. Along with the baptism, [[Ruthenia]] took all Gospel, apostolic and patristic traditions sacred to the storied Eastern Church. The closest of connections were established between the young Russian church and the Constantinople Patriarchate. The first Russian metropolitans were Greeks. They as the representatives of the Patriarch of Constantinople watched the piety of the newly installed customs and practices. The very fact of the patronage above the Kiev-Ruthenian and afterwards Russian Metropolitan shows that the church regulations, divine services, sacraments and rites were borrowed from the Orthodox Church of the East.<br />
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== Church Regulations ==<br />
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In the early days, services in temples and monasteries of the Russian church were conducted according to the Studite liturgical [[typikon]]. This statute received wide acceptance because of the high importance of the [[Studion Monastery]] founded in the year 463 in Constantinople at the Church of [[John the Forerunner]]. This monastery in the course of short time became one of the main spiritual and liturgical centers of orthodoxy. This monastery acquired singular value during the epoch of the [[Iconoclasm]], when the monks of monastery were the most zealous defenders of icon veneration. Studite regulations prepared by Constantinople Patriarch Alexius were brought to Russia in 1065. He also glorified the renowned Old-Russian St. Theodosius Pecherskiy as a saint. From Kiev, the Studite regulations were extended along other cities and abodes of our country. <br />
<br />
In the 14th century during the service of the metropolitans of Fotiya and [[Cyprian of Moscow]], the Russian divine services began to gravitate towards another eastern regulation - Jerusalem. It, first of all, reflects the liturgical practice of the ancient monastery of the Holy Land. The authors of the Jerusalem typikon are considered to be Saints Savva Osvyashchenny and Efim Velikiy. In the 15th century, the Jerusalem typikon obtained a certain advantage in the Russian church. One of the first translations of the Jerusalem regulations into the Slav language was completed at the end of the 14th century by the student of Saint [[Sergius of Radonezh]] - Saint Afanasy Vysotsky, the founder of the Vysotsky monastery in Serpukhov. This regulation obtained the designation “eye of the church” [“oko tserkovnoe”]. <br />
<br />
The co-existence in Russia of two regulations not only did not interfere with the order of divine service, but even enriched the liturgical life of our church. Especially important is the fact that the all ancient typikons, in contrast to contemporary ones, completely preserved the early-Christian dogmatic, symbolic and ontological sense of divine service. Well-known scholar academician E. Golubinskiy believes that the Jerusalem and Studite regulations are only variations of general ancient-orthodox regulations, and “are characterized by not so much chinoposledovaniyami [??] themselves, as by the time and manner of their accomplishments”.<br />
<br />
== Church Singing ==<br />
<br />
Along with the transfer of liturgical regulations into the Russian church from Byzantium passes the ancient tradition of liturgical singing. In the 10th century a Greek Osmoglasie style developed in the form of monotone or unison singing which defined the entire style of Christian hymns. In Russia, the Christian monotone Osmoglasie is called “cherubic”, according to the legends of the saints hearing the holy angels singing. In the course of a short time Christian church singing penetrated all corners of our country. Already in the 11th century in Russia appear raspevy songs dedicated to the native saints. Unknown Russian authors by the 15th- 17th centuries create the huge amount of forms of pesnopeniy [??]: travelling, stolpovoy [??], large and small sign demestvenny [??], Novgorod, Pskov and many others. Possessing significant variety, Russian sacred music nevertheless remained for hundreds of years in the present Christian church, distant from the influence of fashionable secular trends.<br />
<br />
== The Publishing Business ==<br />
<br />
In the life of the Old-Russian church the book occupied an especially significant place. Before the invention of printing, the liturgical books, the works of holy fathers, lives of the saints, theological and other spiritual literature were valued by their weight in gold. The contribution of the book to the monastery or the temple frequently was equal to the cost of land it was put on. The high craftsmanship of the ancient manuscript and the uncommonly deferential attitude to the book by the people, made its production an extremely honorable occupation. Books were even written about princes. So for example, it is established that liturgical books were copied that dealt with Prince Vladimir Galitsky, and several liturgical texts rewrote the life of Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] (the Terrible). Each page, each paragraph, each proposal, each letter of the book was thoroughly compared during a census. In the Old-Russian manuscript books there were many less errors than in the contemporary book of misprints. To spoil the book for the Old-Russian rukopistsa [copyist?] would tarnish all their activities. In the 18th-19th centuries, church and secular historians formed a theory about the allegedly blatant illiteracy which prevalied in Russia in the 10th-16th centuries. The overwhelming majority of the population of Kiev, and then Moscow Russia was illiterate according to the opinion of such “scholars”. A small quantity of semi-literate people were occupied by written office management, and simultaneously copied spiritual literature. In this case into the liturgical books fell many errors, errors and even fabrications of these ignoramuses. <br />
<br />
Today this pseudo-scientific opinion is completely disproved. In the course of impartial historical research in the 20th century, it was established that the very substantial part of the population of ancient Russia was literate. Archaeologists could find on the site of ancient cities and populated areas, thousands of birch bark certificates with records belonging to commoners. After the philological analysis of Old-Russian liturgical texts, the scientists drew the conclusion that their translators and compilers know the wide layers of the literature of the Christian east. The academician of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Sciences RAN] (Russian Academy of Sciences), V. Kirillin, conducted a tedious study of some canons of lenten and colored Triodions of the first half of the 15th century. It turned out that many texts of that time were philological more competent than contemporary ones, are more transparent for the perception and are theologically reconciled. A scientist characterizes the Old-Russian compiler of Lenten Triodion thusly: “There is an obvious and striking theological and philological culture, and a deep (Christian) understanding of unknown editor”. Sometimes the literary achievements of the ancient Russian church proved to be unprecedented throughout entire orthodox east. So in 1490, Novgorod archbishop Gennadiy's efforts for the first time in the history of eastern Christianity created a manuscript bible. <br />
<br />
Contemporary scientists have proved also that discrepancies found in the ancient manuscripts were produced not by the ignorance of compilers and by their supposed fraudulent intent, but by the extraordinary complexity of the book, and by the absence of the possibility of rapidly checking out one questionable place or another. However, concerning differences in the ancient divine service, their reason was the co-existence of the Studite and Jerusalem regulations, which were discussed above. Let us note, however, that all this was not a special concern. The correction of errors, and the considerable improvement of various controversies took place gradually, publicly and only after serious study of the problem. In certain cases such questions were solved in the course of local church councils. Thus, for instance, the sobor of 1551 decided to correct punctuation marks, and at the sobor of 1619 after a thorough study it was decided to withdraw from holy-water prayers at Epiphany the incorrect addition “and by fire”. The appearance of a first-printed “apostle” Ivan Fedorov became a landmark stage in the life of the Russian state. The book became more accessible and available. Printed matter especially bloomed strongly with the Patriarchs Philaret and Joseph. Tsars and pious patriarchs, worrying about the completeness of divine service, generously sent the books to churches without any commercial benefit. The old publication books to this day remain the standard of publishing quality, a model for the font and artistic imitation. <br />
<br />
A new phenomenon in Orthodoxy was the appearance of a printed bible in 1581. The so-called Ostrog Bible became the first printed bible in the entire orthodox eastern world. A Greek printed Bible appeared only in 1821, was even then it was printed in Moscow. The first-printed bible was created because of the efforts of pious prince Constantine Ostrozhskiy, who was patron of the printing affair of Ivan Fedorov. The composition of the [[Ostrog Bible]] used a huge amount of resources brought from Russia, Greece and other countries. The text of this Bible was a close as possible to the original Greek, and the division into chapters of the Old Testament corresponded to ancient Jewish models.<br />
<br />
== Sobornost ==<br />
<br />
The ancient Russian church preserved intact, up to the middle of the 17th century, orthodox sobornost, the basis of evangelical democracy. A truly Christian sobornost penetrated, it is possible to say, all areas of church life. Researchers give a whole series of similar evidence, beginning from the selections of parochial priests, and ending with discussion of spiritual questions at the local sobors. So for example, it is established that in the 12th century the laity played a significant role in the election of candidates for Archbishop. In the Novgorod chronicles it explicitly states: “Novgorodians with Prince Yaroslav, and with the father superiors, and priests, find it is the will of God to elect Morturiya”. A Rostov chronicler condemning the simonial attempt to place the bishop in Rostov writes: “it is more worthy to be born to the saintly rank… but it is God's will and that of St. Bogoroditsa [the Mother of God], Prince Voskhochet and the people”. However, the election of parochial priests was a commonplace matter. The democratic special features of the rituals of the Old-Russian church in the course of hundreds of years supported the integrity of the church body, spiritual peace, and also to a considerable extent the union of laymen and the priesthood. <br />
<br />
Local sobors played an enormous role in the life of the Russian church. These singularly canonical organs of spiritual authority were called to solve the vital problems of church life on the basis of the Holy Scripture and sacred tradition. In the Old-Russian sobors, besides the bishops, the representatives of the secular clergy, scholar monks, princes and other high ranking laymen always participated. <br />
<br />
The description of the entire history of the local sobors of Russian church can engage tens of volumes. We will name only the most important of them. <br />
<br />
===Vladimir Sobor of 1274===<br />
During the Mongolian- Tatar invasion the Russian lands were devastated in a significant manner, some churches were ruined, and the priests killed. This led to a specific point of spiritual decline. Metropolitan Cyril during a journey to Russia noted such sentiments and initiated a large church sobor. The sobor examined the existing problems and published the appropriate decisions. Among them were such: <br />
<ul><br />
<li>Bishops, when they want to place a priest or deacon, but did not know his life experience, will call the neighbors, who knew him from childhood.</li> <br />
<li>The diaconate should be aged 25 years, and priests - 30 years.</li> <br />
<li>Baptism to be performed only with three dunkings. Pouring is not allowed.</li><br />
</ul><br />
<br />
The decisions of Vladimir sobor played a significant role in the strengthening of church piety.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1441===<br />
This most important sobor was convoked on the initiative of the great prince [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_II_of_Russia Vasiliy Vasilyevich]. Pious princes, boyars and Russian bishops were outraged by the behavior of the first-hierarch of the Russian church in those days, Metropolitan Isidor. He participated in the Greco-Latin [[Council of Florence]] of 1439 that together with Greek hierarchs signed the union of the Orthodox Church with Catholic Rome. It is notable that Metropolitan Isidor was one of the main actors of the Florentine sobor. He among the first to sign the union and persuaded the remaining orthodox bishops to sign. <br />
<br />
Returning to Moscow, Isidor gave orders to carry in front of the procession a Latin cross, and during the first liturgy, he mention in the first place the Roman [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Eugene_IV Pope Eugene]. After a few days, a church sobor was called which condemned Metropolitan Isidor as a heretic and rejected the Florentine union. From this point on, in Russia, the relationship to the Greeks changed because they changed the faith of the fathers.<br />
<br />
===Sobor of 1448===<br />
At this sobor was interrupted the dependence of Russian church on the Constantinople patriarchate. At it, the bishop of Ryazan, later known as St. [[Jonah of Moscow]], was solemnly proclaimed the Russian metropolitan. The sobor took place in the church of the St. Archangel Michael and was characterized by special solemnity. Many bishops, father superiors, priests and laymen were assembled at the sobor.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1492===<br />
The Sobor of 1492 was convoked on the matter of the composition of a new Paschalion. At it were present all Russian hierarchs. The sobor determined to continue the Paschalion to eight thousand years. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1503===<br />
This Sobor took place in Moscow under [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon,_Metropolitan_of_Moscow Metropolitan Simon]'s chairmanship. It was attended by the father of St. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nil_Sorsky Nil Sorsky], Joseph Volokolamsky, the Grand Duke John III and his son Basil. The sobor settled questions of debauchery in priests and piety of the monastic life. The sobor of 1504 finally condemned the heresy of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sect_of_Skhariya_the_Jew sect of Skhariya the Jew].<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1547===<br />
The history of the long and pious life of Russian church gave to the entire Christian world an example of many ascetics of God. The need for their canonization, the establishment of special holidays and days of remembrance led to the convocation of a special sobor. Under the chairmanship of St. Macarius at the sobor were glorified numerous Russian obsequious men, saints and miracle workers. Among them were canonized John archbishop of Novgorod, St. Prince Alexander Nevsky, Nikon abbot of Radonezhsky, St. Jonah Metropolitan of Moscow, Zosim Solovetsky, Makarius Kalyazinsky, St. Arseny bishop of Tver, St. Prince Peter and Princess Fevroniya Muromskaya. Following the sobor, by Metropolitan Macarius were comprised “the great Cheti-Minei” [?].<br />
<br />
===The Stoglavy Sobor of 1551===<br />
The Stoglavy sobor (also known as the Council of the Hundred Chapters) became perhaps the brightest phenomenon of the history of the ancient Russian Orthodox church. At this sobor were present Macarius, Metropolitan of Moscow, Philip, the future prelate of Moscow, Maxim the Greek, Gury and Barsonofius of Kazan, Akaki the bishop of Tver and others. Many of these persons have been proclaimed saints lateron. Tsar Ivan IV actively contributed to the convocation of the sobor. More than 70 questions regarding all aspects of church life were examined by the sobor: divine service, piety, spiritual instruction, church control and law court, the rules of Christian behavior and the relations between the spiritual and secular authorities. At the sobor were confirmed many orthodox traditions including the sign of the cross with two fingers and especially the haleluias. In the course of the sobor a committee drew up a collection of acts with 100 chapters. Specifically, on the basis of this collections, the sobor of 1551 obtained the name “Stoglavy” or “Stoglav”. <br />
Issues developed at this sobor became a set of laws for the entire church life in the course of the subsequent 100 years. And today, after 450 years of its solution they have great authority among the Russian Christian Old Believers.<br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1581===<br />
The Sobor of 1581 was convoked in Moscow and was chaired by Metropolitan Job. At it were present Tsarigrad [Constantinople] Patriarch Eremius, Tsar Fedor Ioannovich, and Boris Godunov. The sobor was dedicated to the establishment in Russia of the patriarchate. The first Russian patriarch proclaimed was Metropolitan Job. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1619===<br />
The Sobor of 1619 was dedicated to questions of printing and to correction of the various liturgical books. At it were present Russian Patriarch Filaret and Jerusalem Patriarch Theofan. <br />
<br />
===The Sobor of 1620===<br />
At the Sobor of 1620 were newly raised a question about the oblivatelnoe [?] baptism. The sobor again affirmed pogruzhatelnoe [?] baptism as an undoubted apostolic tradition. At the sobor they also confirmed the need for baptizing latins and all other heretics who were not enlightened by triple immersion.<br />
<br />
== The reforms of Patriarch Nikon ==<br />
By the middle of the 17th century Greek and Russian church officials, including Patriarch Nikon, had noticed discrepancies between contemporary Russian and Greek usages. They reached the conclusion that the Russian Orthodox Church had, as a result of errors of incompetent copyists, developed rites and missal texts of its own that had significantly deviated from the Greek originals. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church had become dissonant from the other Orthodox churches. Later research was to vindicate the Muscovite service-books as belonging to a different recension from that which was used by the Greeks at the time of Nikon, and the unrevised Muscovite books were actually older and more venerable than the Greek books, which had undergone several revisions over the centuries and ironically, were newer and contained innovations (Kapterev N.F., 1913, 1914; Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
Nikon, supported by Tsar [[Alexis I of Russia|Alexis I]] (r. 1645-1676), carried out some preliminary liturgical reforms. In 1652, he convened a [[synod]] and exhorted the clergy on the need to compare Russian ''[[Typikon]]'', ''[[Euchologion]]'', and other [[liturgical books]] with their Greek counterparts. Monasteries from all over Russia received requests to send examples to Moscow in order to have them subjected to a comparative analysis. Such a task would have taken many years of conscientious research and could hardly have given an unambiguous result, given the complex development of the Russian liturgical texts over the previous centuries and an almost complete lack of textual historigraphic techniques at the time.<br />
<br />
The ''[[locum tenens]]'' for the Patriarch, [[Pitirim of Krutitsy]], convened a second synod in 1666, which brought Patriarch [[Michael III of Antioch]], Patriarch [[Paisius of Alexandria]] and many [[bishop]]s to Moscow. Some scholars allege that the visiting patriarchs each received both 20,000 roubles in gold and furs for their participation (Zenkovskij S.A., 1995, 2006). This council officially established the reforms and anathematized not only all those opposing the innovations, but the old Russian books and rites themselves as well. As a side-effect of condemning the past of the Russian Orthodox Church and her traditions, the messianic theory depicting Moscow as the [[Third Rome]] appeared weaker. Instead of the guardian of Orthodox faith, Russia seemed an accumulation of serious liturgical mistakes.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, both Patriarch and Tsar wished to carry out their reforms, although their endeavours may have had as much or more political motivation as religious; several authors on this subject point out that Tsar Alexis, encouraged by his military success in the war against Poland-Lithuania to liberate West Russian provinces and the Ukraine, grew ambitious of becoming the liberator of the Orthodox areas which at that time formed part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. They also mention the role of the Near-East patriarchs, who actively supported the idea of the Russian Tsar becoming the liberator of all Orthodox Christians (Kapterev N.F. 1913, 1914; Zenkovsky S.A., 1995, 2006). <br />
<br />
<br />
===Traditions before the Reform (c. 988 to mid-1600's):===<br />
* A compete cycle of services is served strictly according to the St. Savas (or "Jerusalem") Typicon, in monasteries and parishes alike.<br />
* No abbreviation of the services is allowed.<br />
* In the appointed psalmody (stichologia), the complete text of psalms is read, with the chanters responding with selected psalm verses.<br />
* Some (if not all) of the liturgical homilies are read at their appointed places at Matins. <br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows and prostrations are done at their appointed places during the services, according to a strictly disciplined tradition of performing such actions all together as a single body of worshippers (and without variation in the manner in which they are done). <br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with two fingers while saying the Jesus Prayer, and is a Christological symbol.<br />
* There is a great focus on communal prayer (sobornost'), with the individual losing his/her "separateness" during the public worship services. During the services we partake in the "Mystery of Unity" and experience the fullness of being members of the Church as the Body of Christ. <br />
* Good order (blagochinie), discipline and decorum are maintained during the services, and distracting behavior is not tolerated. Children are taught to adhere to this ordered behavior from the time they are able to stand in church with their parents.<br />
* Old Ritualists seek their path to Salvation through conformity to well-established "iconic" method of living, especial family life or monasticism -- both methods of living focusing upon taking one's place in a unified community. Orderly, obedient and humble ways of thinking are emphasized. Practical vocational skills are valued above theoretical knowledge.<br />
* All children are taught (usually at home) to read Church Slavonic as soon as they are able to read.<br />
* Traditional liturgical singing consists of unison (monophonic) chant.<br />
* No compositions are allowed – only ancient traditional chant melodies. <br />
* Singing is done by two antiphonal choirs, each under the leadership of a "golovshchik" (cantor or "starter"). The cantor tries to lead the singing solely by means of his voice, as arm movements are considered distracting to the congregation. He does not turn his back to the altar and iconostasis, and occasionally makes discrete use of hand signals to correct singing that has become too slow or fast, or to indicate phrasing.<br />
* Congregational singing is included as part of the singing tradition<br />
* The two choirs are always at the front portion of the church, in front of the iconostasis on the right and left sides. <br />
* There is an abundance of ritual, including processions, alternating of choirs, the choirs coming together in the middle of the nave, etc. <br />
* The use of specific kinds of readers has been maintained in our rituals, especially the Canonarch and the Psalmist. <br />
* Readers always get a blessing before reading, and ask forgiveness of the priest and congregation when finishing their duties.<br />
* The ambon, a slightly raised platform, is used by the Canonarch (as well as by the bishop during hierarchical services). <br />
* Chant melodies are preserved in books with "Znamenny" (neumatic or symbolic) notation, derived from the ancient Byzantine Chant; the interpretation (exegesis) is fluid and open to a bit of interpretation. <br />
* There is an elaborate system of hymn genres within a single unified "Znamenny" chant tradition. Demestvenny Chant is used for hierarchical and festal services, while Put' Chant melodies are used for lengthy hymns which must cover long liturgical actions. <br />
* Znamenny Chant preserves the use of true Idiomela (unique, individual) melodies for stichera for Sundays and Feasts. The Prosomoia (Podobny or Special Melodies) singing tradition continues to thrive as an integral part of Vespers and Matins hymnody. <br />
* Many of the appointed readings are done with a melodic reading style called "poglasitsa", which is similar to "cantillation".<br />
<br />
===Traditions after the Reform (mid-1600's to the present) ===<br />
* Only basic services (truncated Vigils and the Hours & Divine Liturgy) are served in ordinary parishes, at the discretion of the priest; some parishes in modern times omit Vespers, Matins and the Hours altogether.<br />
* A considerable amount of abbreviation of services is standard practice.<br />
* The choir sings only selected psalm verses of appointed psalmody. The proper performance of stichologia is rarely done even in New Rite monasteries. <br />
* The patristic liturgical homilies have been abandoned altogether, with the single exception at Paschal Matins.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross, bows, prostrations, kneeling are done whenever (and wherever) people want to do them, and according to numerous individual methods – all in a free-willed manner.<br />
* The Sign of the Cross is done with three fingers while invoking the Holy Trinity (often using the Latin formula "In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit"). <br />
* During the public worship services the individual members of the congregation may run around and perform their private devotions, venerate icons, light candles, read from prayer books, chat with friends. Furthermore, the priest may even hear private confessions during parts of the Vigil or Hours. <br />
* There is a great laxity of church order. Members of the congregation may tolerate someone's distracting behavior and take no steps to bring it under control. Children are frequently left on their own and thus do not acquire personal discipline.<br />
* New Ritualists often seek their path to Salvation by "striking out on one's own", and many people stand out as intensely individualistic. Free-thinking and self-sufficiency are valued, as is a higher academic education. <br />
* Reading Church Slavonic is a skill that is not widely taught, and is usually only acquired by men readers who attend a seminary program. <br />
* The modern musical tradition consists of choral (polyphonic) singing. <br />
* Choirs sing composed music and harmonized arrangements (often simplified) of melodies from the 17th century. <br />
* All the singers are grouped into a single choir under the leadership of a modern-style choral conductor ("dirigent" or "regent"). Some conductors make use of a baton and stand with their backs to the iconostasis, making full use of their arms in modern conducting techniques. <br />
* Congregational singing is discouraged, and singing is done only by a trained choir. <br />
* The choir is located in any number of places, including in a western-style choir loft in some churches. <br />
* There is a great loss of ritual; much of this is due to the loss of antiphonal singing, as there is no ability to maintain liturgical actions without the interaction of separate choirs.<br />
* The offices of Canonarch and Psalmist have been absorbed into the duties of the readers, and some of their unique liturgical actions have become obsolete. <br />
* Readers frequently do not get a blessing to read on the cleros (choir), except to read the Epistle in front of the congregation. <br />
* The ambon is no longer used, except by the bishop during hierarchical liturgies.<br />
* Music is notated with the Kievan square-note notation or modern western round notes; the notation is not conducive to freedom of interpretation. <br />
* Modern Russian Chant is a "mixed bag" of hymn tunes from various traditions, combined in any number of local traditions without much cohesion or consistency. (The inclusion of composed works makes this situation even more chaotic.) <br />
* All stichera are now sung only to generic formulas, and a small repertoire of "Podobny" (Special Melodies) are usually heard only in monasteries and a relatively few parishes with well-trained choirs. <br />
* A plain monotone style of reading is the accepted style of reading in the New Rite; the dramatic "deaconal style" of reading the Epistle and Gospel (raising from a low to a high pitch) is promoted in most parishes as a "sophisticated" manner of reading the Scriptures. (This is considered very inappropriate in most Old Rite communities.)<br />
<br />
=== Main alterations introduced by Patriarch Nikon ===<br />
The numerous changes in both texts and rites occupied approximately 400 pages. Old Believers present the following as the most crucial changes:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! !! Old Practice !! New Practice<br />
|-<br />
! Spelling of ''[[Jesus]]''<br />
| Ісусъ || Іисусъ<br />
|-<br />
! [[Creed]]<br />
| рождена, '''а''' не сотворена ''(begotten '''but''' not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа''' истиннаго''' и Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the '''True''' Lord, the Giver of Life)'' || рождена, не сотворена ''(begotten not made)''; И в Духа Святаго, Господа Животворящаго ''(And in the Holy Ghost, the Lord, the Giver of Life)''<br />
|-я<br />
! [[Sign of the Cross]]<br />
| Two fingers, straightened || Three fingers, straightened<br />
|-<br />
!Number of [[Prosphora]] in the Liturgy<br />
| Seven Prosphora || Five Prosphora<br />
|-<br />
! Direction of Procession<br />
| Sunwise || Counter-Sunwise<br />
|-<br />
!Alleluia<br />
| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже ''(Alleluia, alleluia, glory to Thee, o God)''|| Аллилуїa, аллилуїa, аллилуїa, слава Тебе, Боже (thrice ''alleluia'')<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Notes on other differences have been mentioned above. Some modern readers may perceive these alterations as trivial, but the faithful of that time saw rituals and dogmas as strongly interconnected: church rituals had from the very beginning represented and symbolised doctrinal truth (see the section on ''Backgrounds'' below). Furthermore, the authorities imposed the reforms in an autocratic fashion, with no consultation of the people who would become subject to them, and the reaction against the so-called Nikonian reforms would have objected as much to the manner of imposition as to the actual alterations. In addition, changes often occurred arbitrarily in the texts. For example, wherever the books read 'Христосъ' ("Christ"), Nikon's assistants substituted 'Сынъ' ("the Son"), and wherever they read 'Сынъ' they substituted 'Христосъ'. Another example is that wherever the books read 'Церковь' ("Church"), Nikon substituted 'Храмъ' ("Temple") and vice-versa. The perceived arbitrariness of the changes infuriated the faithful, who resented needless change for the sake of change.<br />
<br />
== The Schism or "Raskol" ==<br />
Opponents of the ecclesiastical reforms of Nikon emerged among all strata of the people and in relatively large numbers. Even after the deposition of patriarch Nikon (1658), who presented too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils officially endorsed Nikon's liturgical reforms. The Old Believers fiercely rejected all innovations, and the most radical amongst them maintained that the official Church had fallen into the hands of the [[Antichrist]]. Under the guidance of Archpriest [[Avvakum]] Petrov (1620 or 1621 to 1682), who had become the leader of the conservative camp within the Old Believers' movement, the Old Believers publicly denounced and rejected all ecclesiastical reforms. The State church anathematized both the old rites and books and those who wished to stay loyal to them at the synod of 1666. From that moment, the Old Believers officially lacked all civil rights. The State church had the most active Old Believers arrested, and executed several of them (including Archpriest Avvakum) some years later in 1682. <br />
<br />
=== After the schism ===<br />
After 1685 a period of persecutions began, including both torture and executions. Many Old Believers fled Russia altogether. However, Old Believers became the dominant denomination in many regions, including Pomorye (Arkhangelsk region), Guslitsy, Kursk region, the Urals, Siberia, etc. A compact 40,000-strong Lipovan community of Old Believers still lives in neighboring Kiliia raion (Vilkov) of Ukraine and Tulcea County of Romania in the Danube Delta. By the 1910s, about 25% of the population in Russia said that they belonged to one of the Old Believer branches.<br />
<br />
Government oppression could vary from relatively moderate, as under [[Peter the Great]] (r. 1682-1725) (Old Believers had to pay double taxation and a separate tax for wearing a beard), to intense, as under Tsar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (r. 1825-1855). The Russian synodal state church and the state authorities often saw Old Believers as dangerous elements and as a threat to the Russian state.<br />
<br />
In 1905 Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] signed an Act of religious freedom, which ended the persecution of all religious minorities in Russia. The Old Believers gained the right to build churches, to ring church bells, to hold processions and to organize themselves. It became prohibited (as under [[Catherine the Great]] (reigned 1762 - 1796)) to refer to Old Believers as ''raskolniki'' (schismatics), a name they consider insulting. People often refer to the period from 1905 until 1917 as "the Golden Age of the Old Faith". One can regard the Act of 1905 as emancipating the Old Believers, who had until then occupied an almost illegal position in Russian society. Nevertheless some restrictions for Old Believers continued: for example, they had no right to join the civil service.<br />
<br />
== Modern situation ==<br />
[[Image:Oldbelieverchurch in Oregon.jpg|thumb|200px|Old Believer church outside of Gervais, Oregon.]]<br />
<br />
In 1971 the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.<br />
<br />
Estimates place the total number of Old Believers remaining today at from 1 to 10 millions, some living in extremely isolated communities in places to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. One [http://www.churchofthenativity.net/index.html Old-Believer parish] in the United States has entered into communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].<br />
<br />
Old-Believer churches in Russia currently have started restoration of their property, although Old Believers (unlike the nearly-official mainstream Orthodoxy) face many difficulties in claiming their restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for all the most important Old Believer branches: [[Rogozhskaya Zastava]] ([[Popovtsy]] of the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] official center), a cathedral for the [[Novozybkovskaya hierarchy]] in [[Zamoskvorech'ye]] and [[Preobrazhenskaya Zastava]] where [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] coexist.<br />
<br />
[[Image:Evstafiev-old-believers-oregon-usa.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Old Believers in Woodburn, Oregon. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev.]]<br />
<br />
Within the Old-Believer world, only [[Pomortsy]] and [[Fedoseevtsy]] treat each other relatively well; none of the other denominations acknowledge each other. Ordinary Old Believers display some tendencies of intra-branch [[ecumenism]], but these trends find sparse support among the official leaders of the congregations.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, Old Believers live all over the world. They scattered mainly due to persecutions under the Tsars and due to the Russian Revolution of 1917. Significant Old-Believer communities exist in Plamondon, Alberta; Woodburn, Oregon; Erie, Pennsylvania; Erskine, Minnesota and in various parts of Alaska including near Homer (Voznesenka, Razdolna, and Kachemak Selo), Anchor Point (Nikolaevsk), Willow, the Palmer/Wasilla Area, Anchorage, Delta Junction, The Anton Larson Bay Area, and on Raspberry Island. A flourishing community also exists in Sydney, Australia.<br />
<br />
== Old Believer groups ==<br />
Although all Old Believers groups emerged as a result of opposition to the Nikonian reform, they do not constitute a single monolithic body. In fact, the Old Believers feature a great diversity of groups that profess different interpretations of the church tradition and often are not in communion with each other. Some groups even practice re-baptism before admitting a member of another group into their midst. <br />
<br />
The terminology used for the divisions within the Old-Believer denomination does not always make precise delineations. Generally, people may refer to a larger movement or group — especially in the case of such major ones as ''popovtsy'' and ''bespopovtsy'' — as a ''soglasie'' or ''soglas'' (in English: "agreement" or more generally, "confession"). Another term, ''tolk'' (English: "teaching") usually applies to lesser divisions within the major "confessions". In particular it can characterize multiple sects that have appeared within the ''bespopovtsy'' movement.<br />
<br />
=== Popovtsy ===<br />
Since none of the bishops joined the Old Believers (except Bishop Pavel of Kolomna, who suffered execution), apostolically ordained priests of the old rite would have soon become extinct. Two responses appeared to this dilemma: the “priestist” Old Believers (поповцы (''[[Popovtsy]]'')) and the non-priestist Old Believers (беспоповцы ([[Bespopovtsy]] — literally "priestless ones")).<br />
<br />
The Popovtsy represented the more moderate conservative opposition, those who strove to continue religious and church life as it had existed before the reforms of Nikon. They recognized ordained priests from the new-style Russian Orthodox church who joined the Old Believers and who had denounced the Nikonian reforms. In 1846 they convinced Amvrosii Popovich (1791-1863), a deposed [[Greek Orthodox]] bishop whom Turkish pressure had had removed from his see at Sarajevo, to become an Old Believer and to consecrate three Russian Old-Believer priests as bishops. In 1859, the number of Old-Believer bishops in Russia reached ten, and they established their own [[episcopate]], the [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]]. Not all priestist Old Believers recognized this hierarchy. Dissenters known as беглопоповцы (''beglopopovtsy'') obtained their own hierarchy in the 1920s. The priestist Old Believers thus manifest as two churches which share the same beliefs, but which treat each other's hierarchy as illegitimate. [[Popovtsy]] have priests, bishops and all [[sacrament]]s, including the [[eucharist]]. <br />
<br />
* [[Belokrinitskaya hierarchy]] - The largest [[Popovtsy]] denomination. One can refer to the Russian part of this denomination as the [[Belokrinitskoe Soglasie]] (the "Belokrinitsky Agreement") or as the [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]].<br />
* Okruzhniki (extinct)<br />
* Neokruzhniki (extinct)<br />
<br />
* Novozybkovskaya hierarchy or [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]]<br />
* [[Beglopopovtsy]] (extinct, now the Russian Old-Orthodox Church)<br />
<br />
* Luzhkane, also known as ''Luzhkovskoe soglasie'' (extinct). In some places, they had no priests and so belonged to [[Bespopovtsy]].<br />
<br />
=== Bespopovtsy ===<br />
The Bespopovtsy (the "priestless") rejected "the World" where [[Antichrist]] reigned; they preached the imminent end of the world, [[asceticism]], adherence to the old rituals and the old faith. The Bespopovtsy claimed that the true church of Christ had ceased to exist on Earth, and they therefore renounced priests and all sacraments except [[baptism]]. The Bespopovtsy movement has many sub-groups. [[Bespopovtsy]] have no priests and no [[eucharist]].<br />
<br />
* [[Pomortsy]] or Danilovtsy (not to be confused with Pomors) originated in North European Russia (Russian Karelia, Arkhangelsk region). Initially they rejected marriage and prayer for the Tsar. <br />
* Novopomortsy, or "New Pomortsy" - accept marriage<br />
* Staropomortsy, or "Old Pomortsy" - reject marriage<br />
* [[Fedoseevtsy]] – “Society of Christian Old Believers of the Old Pomortsy Unmarried Confession” (1690s- present); deny marriage and practise cloister-style asceticism.<br />
* [[Fillipovtsy]].<br />
* [[Chasovennye]] (from a word ''chasovnya'' - a chapel) - Siberian branch. The Chasovennye initially had priests, but later decided to change to a priestless practice. Also known as [[Semeyskie]] (in the lands east of Baykal Lake).<br />
<br />
====Bespopovsty: Minor groups====<br />
Aside from these major groups, many smaller groups have emerged and died out at various times since the end of 17th century:<br />
* ''Aristovtsy'' (beginning of 19th to the beginning of 20th centuries; extinct) - from the name of the merchant Aristov;<br />
* ''Titlovtsy'' (extinct in 20th cent.) - emerged from [[Fedoseevtsy]], supported the use of [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]]'s inscription upon the cross (''titlo''), which other groups rejected;<br />
* ''Troparion'' confession (troparschiki) - a group that commemorated the tsar in the hymns ([[troparia]]);<br />
* Daniel’s confession of the “partially married” (''danilovtsy polubrachnye'');<br />
* Adamant confession (''adamantovy'') - refused to use money and passports (as containing the seal of [[Antichrist]]); <br />
* Aaron's confession (''aaronovtsy'') - second half of the 18th century, a spin-off of the Fillipovtsy.<br />
* “Grandmother’s confession” or the Self-baptized - practiced self-baptism or the baptism by midwives (''babushki''), since the priesthood — in their opinion — had ceased to exist;<br />
* “Hole-worshippers” (''dyrniki'') - relinquished the use of [[icons]] and prayed to the east through a hole in the wall (!);<br />
* Melchisedecs (in Moscow and in [[Bashkortostan]]) - practiced a peculiar lay "quasi-eucharistic" rite;<br />
* “Runaways” (''beguny'') or “Wanderers” (''stranniki'');<br />
* “Netovtsy” or Saviour’s confession - denied the possibility of celebrating sacraments and praying in churches; the name comes from the Russian ''net'' "no", since they have "no" sacraments, "no" churches, "no" priests etc.<br />
<br />
==Edinovertsy==<br />
'''Edinovertsy''' (Russian: единоверцы -- 'people of the same faith', as opposed to ''староверы'' -- people of the "old faith", i.e., Old Believers) - Agreed to become a part of the official Russian Orthodox Church while saving the old rites. First appearing in 1800, the Edinovertsy come under the [[omophorion]] of the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate or of the Russian Church Abroad. They retain the use of the pre-Nikonian rituals.<br />
<br />
== Validity of the Reformist Theory: sources of Russian traditions ==<br />
Vladimir officially converted the Eastern Slavs to Christianity in 988, and the people had adopted Greek Orthodox liturgical practices. At the end of 11th century, the efforts of St. Theodosius of the Caves in Kiev (''Феодосий Киево-Печерский'', d. 1074) introduced the Studite Typikon to Russia. This [[typikon]] reflected the traditions of the urban monastic community of the famous [[Studion Monastery]] in Constantinople. The Studite Typikon predominated throughout the western part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] and was accepted throughout the Russian lands. In the end of 14th century, through the work of St. [[Cyprian of Moscow|Cyprian]], metropolitan of Moscow and Kiev, the Studite liturgical practices were gradually replaced in Russia with the ''Jerusalem Typicon'' or the ''Typicon of St. Sabbas'' - originally, an adaptation of the Studite liturgy to the customs of Palestinian monasteries. The process of gradual change of ''typica'' would continue throughout the 15th century and, because of its slow implementation, met with little resistance - unlike Nikon's reforms, conducted with abruptness and violence. However, in the course of 15th-17th centuries, Russian scribes continued to insert some Studite material into the general shape of ''Jerusalem Typicon''. This explains the differences between the modern version of the ''Typicon'', used by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the pre-Nikonian Russian recension of ''Jerusalem Typicon'', called ''Oko Tserkovnoe'' (Rus. "eye of the church"). This pre-Nikonian version, based on the Moscow printed editions of 1610, 1633 and 1641, continues to be used by modern Old Believers.<br />
<br />
However, in the course of the polemics against Old Believers, the official [[Church of Russia|Russian Orthodox Church]] often claimed the discrepancies (which emerged in the texts between the Russian and the Greek churches) as Russian innovations, errors, or arbitrary translations. <br />
This charge of "Russian innovation" re-appeared repeatedly in the textbooks and anti-''raskol'' treatises and catecheses, including, for example, those by [[Dimitri of Rostov]]. The critical evaluation of the sources and of the essence of Nikonian reforms began only in the 1850s with the groundbreaking work of Nikolai F. Kapterev (1847-1917), continued later by Serge Zenkovsky. Kapterev demonstrated&mdash;for the first time to the wider Russian audience&mdash;that the rites, rejected and condemned by the Nikonian reforms, were genuine customs of the Orthodox Church which suffered alterations in the Greek usage during the 15th-16th centuries, but remained unchanged in Russia. The pre-Nikonian liturgical practices, including some elements of the Russian typicon, ''Oko Tserkovnoe'', were demonstrated to have preserved many earlier Byzantine material, being actually closer to the earlier Byzantine texts than some later Greek customs (Kapterev, N.F. 1913; Zenkovsky, S.A. 2006).<br />
<br />
Remarkably, the scholars who opened the new avenues for re-evaluation of the reform by the Russian Church — Kapterev and E.E. Golubinsky — themselves held membership of the "official" church, but took up study of the causes and background of the reforms and of the resulting schism. Their research revealed the official theory regarding the old Russian books and rites as unsustainable. Zenkovsky has described Kapterev's as<br />
[...] the first historian who questioned the theory about the “pervertedness” or incorrectness of the Old Russian ritual and pointed out that the Russian ritual was not at all perverted, but had on the contrary preserved a number of early Old Byzantine rituals, among them the sign of the cross with two fingers, which had been changed later on by the Greeks themselves, in the 12th and 13th century, which caused the discrepancy between the Old Russian and the New Greek church rituals. — Zenkovsky, S.A., ''Russkoe staroobrjadčestvo'', 1970,1990, p. 19-20.<br />
</blockquote><br />
<br />
== Backgrounds ==<br />
[[image:Raskolnikchurch.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Old Believer Church in Ulan Ude, Buryatia, Russia]]<br />
As Sergej Zenkovsky points out in his standard work "Russia's Old Believers", the Old Believer schism did not occur simply as a result of a few individuals with power and influence. The schism had complex causes, revealing historical processes and circumstances in 17th-century Russian society. Those who broke from the hierarchy of the official State Church had quite divergent views on church, faith, society, state power and social issues. Thus the collective term “Old Believers” groups together various movements within Russian society which actually had existed long before 1666/1667. They shared a distrust of state power and of the episcopate, insisting upon the right of the people to arrange their own spiritual life, and expressing the ambition to aim for such control.<br />
<br />
Both the popovtsy and bespopovtsy, although theologically and psychologically two different teachings, manifested spiritual, eschatological and mystical tendencies throughout Russian religious thought and church life. One can also emphasize the schism's position in the political and cultural backgrounds of its time: increasing Western influence, secularization, and attempts to subordinate the Church to the state. Nevertheless, the Old Believers sought above all to defend and preserve the purity of the Orthodox faith, embodied in the old rituals, which inspired many to strive against Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms even unto death.<br />
<br />
In the past the Old Believers' movement was often perceived as an obscure faith in rituals that led to the deaths of tens of thousands of ignorant people. Old Beliers were accused of not being able to distinguish the important from the unimportant. To many people of that time, however, rituals expressed the very essence of their faith. Old Believers hold that the preservation of a certain "microclimate" that enables the salvation of one's soul requires not only living by the commandments of [[Christ]], but also carefully preserving Church tradition, which contains the spiritual power and knowledge of past centuries, embodied in external forms. <br />
<br />
The Old Believers reject the idea of contents ''a priori'' prevailing over form. To illustrate this issue, the renowned Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky (1841–1911) referred to poetry. He argued, that if one converts a poem into prose, the contents of the poem may remain intact, but the poem will lose its charm and emotional impact; moreover, the poem will essentially no longer exist. In the case of religious rituals, form and contents do not just form two separable, autonomous entities, but connect with each other through complex relationships, including theological, psychological, phenomenal, esthetic and historic dimensions.<br />
<br />
These aspects, in their turn, play a role in the perception of these rituals by the faithful and in their spiritual lives. Considering the fact that Church rituals from their very beginning were intertwined with doctrinal truth, changing these rituals may have a tremendous effect on religious conscience and a severe impact on the faithful.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, centuries of persecution and the nature of their origin have made some Old Believers very culturally conservative. Some Old Believers go so far as to consider any pre-Nikonian Orthodox Russian practice or artifact as exclusively theirs, denying that the Russian Orthodox Church has any claims upon a history before Patriarch Nikon. <br />
<br />
However, Russian economic history of the late 19th and early 20th centuries reveals the Old-Believer merchant families as more flexible and more open to innovations while creating factories and starting the first Russian industries.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Similarities between Old Believers and Oriental Orthodox Christians==<br />
<br />
''(These are not true with all Christian Churches)''<br />
<br />
Although [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]] and the rest of Christendom ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church]]) separated in 451 AD following the [[Council of Chalcedon]], striking similarities can be found today between the Old Believers Russian Orthodox Christians and the Oriental Orthodox Christians, such as the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Copts]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenians]], the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriacs]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopians]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Eritreans]].<br />
This similarity can be attributed to the fact that both groups are much stricter than any other Christian denomination in resisting even the slightest changes to their liturgy, practices or Orthodox faith as it has been handed down to them by the fathers of the early Church in the first 4 centuries of Christianity.<br />
Some of the most notable similarities between the Old Believers and the Oriental Orthodox Christians include the following:<br />
* Both adhere strictly to the practice of [[baptism]] by three full immersions, and reject the validity of [[baptism]] by sprinkling or pouring of water.<br />
* Both reject any changes or emendations of liturgical or religious texts.<br />
* Both employ monodic singing, as opposed to the polyphonic singing of most other Christian denominations.<br />
* Both reject the use of modern realistic iconography, and adhere to the veneration of traditional icons.<br />
* Both groups practice bows and prostrations during liturgical services, and do not kneel during prayer.<br />
* The liturgical services of both the Old Believers and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] are considerably longer than those of other Christian denominations. These services can last for as long as eight hours on feast days.<br />
* Preparation for communion is very strict for both groups and lasts for days prior to receiving the sacrament.<br />
<br />
==Old Believer churches==<br />
* [[Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Lipovan Orthodox Old-Rite Church]] (Belokrinitskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Russian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Novozybkovskaya hierarchy)<br />
* [[Pomorian Old-Orthodox Church]] (Pomory)<br />
<br />
==References and select bibliography==<br />
*In English:<br />
**Cherniavsky, M., "The Reception of the Council of Florence in Moscow" and Shevchenko I., "Ideological Repercussions of the Council of Florence", ''Church History'' XXIV (1955), 147-157 and 291-323 (articles) <br />
**Crummey, Robert O. ''The Old Believers & The World Of Antichrist; The Vyg Community & The Russian State'', Wisconsin U.P., 1970 <br />
**Gill, T. ''The Council of Florence'', Cambridge, 1959<br />
**Meyendorff, P.": Russia - Ritual and Reform: The Liturgical Reforms of Nikon in the 17th Century", St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, NY, 1991<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A. "The ideology of the Denisov brothers", ''Harvard Slavic Studies'', 1957. III, 49-66<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Old Believer Avvakum", ''Indiana Slavic Studies'', 1956, I, 1-51<br />
**Zenkovsky, Serge A.: ''Pan-Turkism and Islam in Russia'', Harvard U.P., 1960 and 1967<br />
**Zenkovsky, S.: "The Russian Schism", ''Russian Review'', 1957, XVI, 37-58<br />
<br />
*In Russian:<br />
**Зеньковский С.А. ''Русское старообрядчество'', том I и II, Москва 2006 / Zenkovsky S.A. “Russia’s Old Believers”, volumes I and II, Moscow 2006 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''История русской церкви'', Москва 1900 / Golubinskij E.E. “History of the Russian Church”, Moscow 1900 <br />
**Голубинский Е.Е. ''К нашей полимике со старообрядцами'', ЧОИДР, 1905 / “Contribution to our polemic with the Old believers”, ČOIDR, 1905<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Патриарх Никон и его противники в деле исправления церковныx обрядов'', Москва 1913 / Kapterv N.F. “Patriarch Nikon and his opponents in the correction of church rituals”, Moscow 1913<br />
**Каптерев Н.Ф. ''Характер отношений России к православному востоку в XVI и XVII вв.'', Москва 1914/Kapterev N.F. "Character of the relationships between Russia and the orthodox East in the XVI and XVII centuries", Moscow 1914<br />
**Карташов А.В. ''Очерки по иситории русской церкви'', Париж 1959 / Kartašov A.V. “Outlines of the history of the Russian church”, Paris 1959<br />
**Ключевский И.П. ''Сочинения'', I – VIII, Москва 1956-1959 / Ključevskij I.P. "Works", I – VIII, Moscow 1956-1959<br />
**Мельников Ф.И., ''Краткая история древлеправославной (старообрядческой) церкви''. Барнаул, 1999 (Russian) / Melnikov F.I., 1999 “Short history of the Old orthodox (Old ritualist) Church” Barnaul 1999<br />
<br />
==Source==<br />
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers Wikipedia:Old Believers] (accessed July 13, 2007)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://digilander.libero.it/ortodossia/Ambrogio.htm Breve Vita Del Padre Nostro Tra I Santi Ambrogio Metropolita Di Belo-Krinitsa E Di Tutti Gli Antichi Ortodossi, Il Confessore]<br />
*[http://www.belaya-krinica.kiev.ua/ Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church]<br />
*[http://oldorthodoxy.wetpaint.com Ancient Orthodox Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.synaxis.info/ SYNAXIS.INFO - Library of Eastren Orthodox Resources]<br />
*[http://oldbelievers.wetpaint.com/ Old-Rite Russian Orthodox Christian Wiki]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/fatman2021/index.html How Old Believers make the sign of the cross]<br />
*[http://www.rpsc.ru Russian Orthodox Old-Rite Church (official site of the Moscow Metropoly)]<br />
*[http://alkonost.onego.ru/history/OldBelievers.html Old Believers in Karelia in the 17th century]<br />
*[http://www.starover.ee Old Believers in Estonia]<br />
*[http://www.oldbelievers.org/ Russian Orthodox Old Rite Believers]<br />
*[http://members.tripod.com/old_rite_orthodox/index.html Orthodox Kellion of the Holy Trinity and Saint Sergius]<br />
*[http://www.russiangiftsnina.com/ Russian Old Ritualist Village Nikolaevsk Alaska]<br />
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/old-rite/ Old-Rite Yahoo! Group — Russia's Ancient Spiritual Heritage]<br />
*[http://www.churchofthenativity.net/ Old Rite ROCOR Church of the Nativity]<br />
*[http://oldbeliever.blogspot.com/ Old Ritualist Monks of the Old Rite in North Dakota]<br />
*[http://www.countryscribe.com/weblog/2003_10_19_archive.html Page Down to "Elena's Place" for an Interview with a Minnesota Old Believer] <br />
*[http://catholicmartyrs.ru/en/persons/emelyanov.html A brief biography of Father Potapy Emelyanov, an Old Believer who converted to Catholicism.]<br />
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/2827/collection.html Collection of Old Believer History and Tradition; Compiled by Paul J. Wigowsky.]<br />
*[http://eng.sedmitza.ru?index.html?did=1293 Old Believers in Modern Russia]<br />
*[http://www.kirov.ru/~umcnd/eng/churches/omutnin.htm Old Belief in Omutninsk, Russia]<br />
*[http://homernews.com/visitors/stories/111306/220_mile_20061113025.shtml Old Believers in Alaska]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Jurisdictions]]<br />
[[Category:Old Believer Jurisdictions|*]]<br />
<br />
[[fr:Orthodoxes vieux-croyants]]<br />
[[ro:Rascolnici]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27&diff=82145Christianization of Kievan Rus'2009-03-28T22:17:11Z<p>Fatman2021: New page: The ruins of [[Chersonesos: the place where the Russian and Ukrainian churches were born]] The '''Christianization of Kievan Rus''''<...</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Kersones_st_vladimir.jpg|thumb|200px|The ruins of [[Chersonesos]]: the place where the Russian and Ukrainian churches were born]]<br />
The '''[[Christianization]] of [[Kievan Rus']]'''<ref>In Russian-language (as well as Ukrainian) literature, the term "baptism of Rus'" ({{lang-ru|Крещение Руси}}) is often used, primarily to designate the events of [[988]].</ref> took place in several stages. In early 867, [[Patriarch Photius]] of Constantinople announced to other Orthodox patriarchs that [[the Rus]], baptised by his bishop, took to Christianity with particular enthusiasm. Photius's attempts at Christianizing the country seem to have entailed no lasting consequences, since the [[Primary Chronicle]] and other Slavonic sources describe the tenth-century Rus as firmly entrenched in paganism. The definitive Christianisation of [[Kiev]] dates from the late 980s (the year is disputed<ref>See Oleg M. Rapov, ''Russkaya tserkov v IX&ndash;pervoy treti XII veka'' (''The Russian Church from the 9th to the First 3rd of the 12th Century''). Moscow, 1988.</ref>), when [[Vladimir the Great]] was baptized at [[Chersonesos]], proceeding to baptize his family and people in [[Kiev]].<br />
<br />
== Ninth century ==<br />
{{Eastern Christianity}}<br />
:{{Main|Christianization of the Rus' Khaganate}}<br />
The most authoritative source for the early Christianization of Rus is an encyclical letter of [[Patriarch Photius]], datable to early 867. Referencing the [[Siege of Constantinople (860)|Siege of Constantinople of 860]], Photius informs the Oriental patriarchs and bishops that, after the [[Bulgarians]] [[Christianization of Bulgaria |turned to Christ]] in 863 <ref> History of the Bulgarians from Antiquity to the 16th Century by Georgi Bakalov (2003) ISBN 954-528-289-4</ref>, the Rus' followed suit. As was the case with the Bulgarians, the Patriarch found it prudent to send to the barbarians a [[bishop]] from Constantinople.<ref>Photii Patriarchae Constantinopolitani Epistulae et Amphilochia. Eds.: B. Laourdas, L.G. Westerinck. T.1. Leipzig, 1983. P. 49.</ref> With some modifications, the story is repeated by [[Constantine VII]] in ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'', followed by several generations of Byzantine historians, including [[John Skylitzes]] and [[John Zonaras]]. That the imperial court and patriarchate regarded the 10th-century Rus' as Christians is evident from the fact that the bishopric of Rus' was enumerated in the lists of Orthodox sees, compiled during the reigns of [[Leo the Wise]] and Constantine VII. There is also an argumentum ex silentio: no Greek source recorded the second baptism of the Rus in the 990s.<br />
<br />
== Tenth century ==<br />
Whatever the scope of Photius's efforts to Christianize the Rus, their effect was not lasting. Although they fail to mention the mission of Photius, the authors of the [[Primary Chronicle]] were aware that a sizable portion of the Kievan population was Christian by 944. In the [[Russo-Byzantine Treaty (945)|Russo-Byzantine Treaty]], preserved in the text of the chronicle, the Christian part of the Rus swear according to their faith, while the ruling prince and other non-Christians invoke [[Perun]] and [[Veles]] after the pagan custom. The Kievan [[collegiate church]] of [[St. Elijah]] (whose cult in the Slavic countries was closely modeled on that of Perun) is mentioned in the text of the chronicle, leaving modern scholars to ponder how many churches existed in Kiev at the time. <br />
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Either in 945 or 957, the ruling regent, [[Olga of Kiev]], visited [[Constantinople]] with a certain priest, Gregory. Her reception at the imperial court is described in ''[[De Ceremoniis]]''. Although it is usually presumed that she was baptized in Constantinople rather than Kiev, there is no explicit mention of the sacrament, so neither version is excluded. Olga is also known to have requested a bishop and priests from Rome.<ref>[[Thietmar of Merseburg]] says that the first [[archbishop of Magdeburg]], [[Adalbert of Prague]], before being promoted to this high rank, was sent by Emperor Otto to the country of the Rus (''Rusciae'') as a simple bishop but was expelled by pagans. The same data is duplicated in the annals of [[Quedlinburg]] and [[Hildesheim]], among others.</ref> Her son Sviatoslav (r. 963-972) continued to worship [[Perun]] and other gods of the [[Slavic mythology|Slavic pantheon]]. He remained a stubborn [[Paganism|pagan]] all of his life; according to the Primary Chronicle, he believed that his warriors would lose respect for him and mock him if he became a Christian. <br />
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Svyatoslav's successor, [[Yaropolk I]] (r. 972-980), seems to have had a more conciliatory attitude towards Christianity. Late medieval sources even claim that Yaropolk exchanged ambassadors with the Pope. The ''Chronicon'' of [[Adémar de Chabannes]] and the life of [[St. Romuald]] (by [[Pietro Damiani]]) actually document the mission of St. [[Bruno of Querfurt]] to the land of ''Russia'', where he succeeded in converting to Christianity a local king (one of three brothers who ruled the land). [[Alexander Nazarenko]] suggests that Yaropolk went through some preliminary rites of baptism, but was murdered at the behest of his pagan half-brother Vladimir (whose own rights to the throne were questionable) before his conversion was formalized. Following this theory, any information on Yaropolk's baptism according to the Latin rite would be suppressed by the later Orthodox chroniclers, zealous to keep Vladimir's image of the Russian Apostle untarnished for succeeding generations.<ref>[[Alexander Nazarenko]]. ''Древняя Русь на международных путях''. Moscow, 2001. ISBN 5-7859-0085-8.</ref><br />
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== Vladimir's baptism of Kiev ==<br />
==== Background ====<br />
[[Image:PerovVG PervHristianKievGRM.jpg|275px|thumb|[[Vasily Perov]]'s painting illustrates clandestine meetings of Christians in pagan Kiev]]<br />
[[Image:Eggink VelKnVladimir.jpg|thumb|275px|Ivan Eggink's painting represents Vladimir listening to the Orthodox priests, while the papal envoy stands aside in discontent]]<br />
During the first decade of Vladimir's reign, pagan reaction set in. [[Perun]] was chosen as the supreme deity of the Slavic pantheon and his [[Cult image|idol]] was placed on the hill by the royal palace. This revival of paganism was contemporaneous with similar attempts undertaken by [[Jarl Haakon]] in [[Norway]] and (possibly) [[Svein Forkbeard]] in [[Denmark]]. Although Vladimir seems to have gone further than both Scandinavian [[konung]]s (even human sacrifices were reported in Kiev), his religious reform failed. By the late 980s he had found it necessary to adopt [[monotheism]] from abroad.<br />
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The [[Primary Chronicle]] reports that in the year 987, as the result of a consultation with his [[boyar]]s, Vladimir sent envoys to study the religions of the various neighboring nations whose representatives had been urging him to embrace their respective faiths. The result is amusingly described in the following apocryphal anecdote. Of the [[Muslim]] [[Volga Bulgaria|Bulgarians of the Volga]] the envoys reported there is no gladness among them; only sorrow and a great stench, and that their religion was undesirable due to its [[taboo]] against [[alcoholic beverage]]s and [[pork]]; supposedly, Vladimir said on that occasion: "Drinking is the joy of the Rus'."<br />
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Russian sources also describe Vladimir consulting with [[Jewish]] envoys (who may or may not have been [[Khazars]]), and questioning them about their religion but ultimately rejecting it, saying that their loss of [[Jerusalem]] was evidence of their having been abandoned by [[God]]. <br />
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Ultimately Vladimir settled on [[Christianity]]. In the gloomy churches of the Germans his emissaries saw no beauty; but at [[Hagia Sophia]], where the full festival ritual of the Byzantine Church was set in motion to impress them, they found their ideal: ''"We no longer knew whether we were in heaven or on earth,"'' they reported, ''"nor such beauty, and we know not how to tell of it."'' If Vladimir was impressed by this account of his envoys, he was yet more so by political gains of the Byzantine alliance.<br />
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==== Baptism of Vladimir ====<br />
[[Image:Vasnetsov Bapt Vladimir.jpg|200px|left|thumb|''The Baptism of Vladimir'', a fresco by [[Viktor Vasnetsov]]]]<br />
Foreign sources, very few in number, present the following story of Vladimir's conversion. [[Yahya of Antioch]] and his followers ([[al-Rudhrawari]], [[al-Makin]], [[al-Dimashki]], and [[ibn al-Athir]])<ref>Ibn al-Athir dates these events to 985 or 986.</ref> give essentially the same account. In 987, the generals [[Bardas Sclerus]] and [[Bardas Phocas]] revolted against the Byzantine emperor [[Basil II]]. Both rebels briefly joined forces and advanced on Constantinople. On [[September 14]], 987, Bardas Phocas proclaimed himself emperor. Anxious to avoid the siege of his capital, Basil II turned to the Rus for assistance, even though they were considered enemies at that time. Vladimir agreed, in exchange for a marital tie; he also agreed to accept Orthodox Christianity as his religion and bring his people to the new faith. When the wedding arrangements were settled, Vladimir dispatched 6,000 troops to the Byzantine Empire and they helped to put down the revolt.<ref>Golden, P.B. (2006) "Rus." [[Encyclopaedia of Islam]] (Brill Online). Eds.: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill.</ref> {{Campaignbox Russo-Byzantine Wars}}<br />
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In the Primary Chronicle, the account of Vladimir's baptism is preceded by the so-called Korsun' Legend. According to this apocryphal story, in 988 Vladimir captured the Greek town of Korsun' ([[Chersonesos]]) in Crimea, highly important commercially and politically. This campaign may have been dictated by his wish to secure the benefits promised to him by Basil II, when he had asked for the Rus' assistance against Phocas. In recompense for the evacuation of Chersonesos, Vladimir was promised the hand of the emperor's sister, [[Anna Porphyrogeneta]]. Prior to the wedding, Vladimir was baptized (either in Chersonesos or in Kiev), taking the Christian name of Basil out of compliment to his imperial brother-in-law. The sacrament was followed by his marriage with the Greek princess.<ref>''Lavrentevskaia Letopis'', also called the ''Povest Vremennykh Let'', in ''Polnoe Sobranie Russkikh Letopisei'' (PSRL), vol. 1, col.s 95-102.</ref><br />
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==== Baptism of Kiev ====<br />
[[Image:Lebedev baptism.jpg|275px|thumb|''The Baptism of Kievans'', a painting by [[Klavdiy Lebedev]]]]<br />
Returning to Kiev in triumph, Vladimir exhorted the residents of his capital to the [[Dnieper]] river for [[baptism]]. This mass baptism became the [[icon]]ic inaugural event in the Christianization of the state of [[Kievan Rus']]. <br />
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At first Vladimir baptised his 12 sons and many [[boyar]]s. He destroyed the wooden statues of [[Slavic mythology|Slavic pagan gods]] (which he had himself raised just eight years earlier). They were either burnt or hacked into pieces, and the statue of Perun &mdash; the supreme god &mdash; was thrown into the Dnieper. Then he sent a message to all residents of Kiev, "rich, and poor, and beggars, and slaves", to come to the river on the following day, lest they risk becoming the "prince's enemies". Large number of people came; some even brought infants with them. They were sent into the water while Orthodox priests, who came from Chersonesos for the occasion, prayed. <ref>''Lavrent.'' (PSRL 1), col. 102.</ref> <br />
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To commemorate the event, Vladimir built the first stone [[church (building)|church]] of Kievan Rus', called the [[Church of the Tithes]], where his body and the body of his new wife were to repose. Another church was built on top of the hill where pagan statues stood before. <ref>''Lavrent.'' (PSRL 1), cols. 108-109.</ref><br />
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== Aftermath ==<br />
The baptism of Kiev was followed by similar ceremonies in other urban centres of the country. The [[Ioakim Chronicle]] says that Vladimir's uncle, [[Dobrynya]], forced the [[Novgorod]]ians into Christianity "by fire", while the local mayor, [[Putyata]], persuaded his compatriots to accept Christian faith "by the sword". At that same time, Bishop [[Ioakim Korsunianin]] built the first, wooden, [[Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod|Cathedral of Holy Wisdom]] "with 13 tops" on the site of a pagan cemetery.<ref>''Novgorodskaia tretiaia letopis'', (PSRL 3), 208. On the initial conversion, see Vasilii Tatishchev, ''Istoriia rossiiskaia'', A. I. Andreev, et al., eds. (Moscow and Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1962), vol. 1, pp. 112-113.</ref> Paganism persisted in the country for a long time, surfacing during the [[Upper Volga Uprising]] and other occasional pagan protests. The northeastern part of the country, centred on [[Rostov]], was particularly hostile to the new religion. Novgorod itself faced a pagan uprising as late as 1071, in which Bishop Fedor faced a real threat to his person; Prince Gleb Sviatoslaich broke up the crowd by chopping a sorcerer in half with an ax.<ref>Arsennii Nasonov, ed. ''Novgorodskaia Pervaia Letopis: Starshego i mladshego izvodov'' (Moscow and Leningrad: AN SSSR, 1950), pp. 191-96.</ref><br />
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The Christianisation of Kievan Rus' firmly allied it with the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The Greek learning and book culture was adopted in Kiev and other centres of the country. Churches started to be built on the Byzantine model. During the reign of Vladimir's son [[Yaroslav I]], Metropolitan [[Hilarion of Kiev|Ilarion]] authored the first known work of East Slavic literature, an elaborate oration in which he favourably compared Rus to other lands known as "the Sermon on Law and Grace". The [[Ostromir Gospels]], produced in Novgorod during the same period, was the first dated East Slavic book. But the only surviving work of lay literature, ''[[The Tale of Igor's Campaign]]'', testifies to the survival of pagan worldview under this Christian facade.<br />
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In 1988, the faithful of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches which have roots in the baptism of Kiev celebrated a millennium of Eastern Slavic Christianity. The great celebrations in [[Moscow]] changed the character of relationship between the Soviet state and the church. For the first time since 1917, numerous churches and monasteries were returned to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. In Ukrainian communities around the world, members of various [[History of Christianity in Ukraine |Ukrainian churches]] also celebrated the Millennium of Christianity in [[Ukraine]].<br />
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== See also ==<br />
* [[Baptism of Poland]]</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=File:Vladimir_campaign_on_Korsun_by_Roerich.jpg&diff=82138File:Vladimir campaign on Korsun by Roerich.jpg2009-03-28T22:08:20Z<p>Fatman2021: </p>
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<div>== Summary ==<br />
Fleet of Kievan knyaz Vladimir for campaign against Korsun (in 988). «Красные паруса. Поход Владимира на Корсунь. » Н.К. Рерих. Холст, масло. 27x52 см, Государственная Третьяковская галерея, Москва<br />
== Copyright status ==<br />
CC<br />
== Source ==<br />
Wikipedia</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=File:14_2_List_of_Radzivill_Chron.jpg&diff=82136File:14 2 List of Radzivill Chron.jpg2009-03-28T22:02:56Z<p>Fatman2021: Radzivill chronicle. List 14, back. Вещий Олег идет на Царьград.</p>
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<div>== Summary ==<br />
Radzivill chronicle. List 14, back. Вещий Олег идет на Царьград.<br />
== Copyright status ==<br />
CC<br />
== Source ==<br />
Wikipedia</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=File:Hagia-sofia-viking.jpg&diff=82134File:Hagia-sofia-viking.jpg2009-03-28T21:55:32Z<p>Fatman2021: Graffiti presumably inscribed by Viking mercenaries on the second floor of the Hagia Sofia. Photo taken in May, 2005.Not home 21:29, 7 May 2007 (UTC)</p>
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<div>== Summary ==<br />
Graffiti presumably inscribed by Viking mercenaries on the second floor of the Hagia Sofia. Photo taken in May, 2005.Not home 21:29, 7 May 2007 (UTC)<br />
== Copyright status ==<br />
CC<br />
== Source ==<br />
Wikipedia</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=File:Runestonecross.jpg&diff=82133File:Runestonecross.jpg2009-03-28T21:53:53Z<p>Fatman2021: Runestone, Uppland, Sweden</p>
<hr />
<div>== Summary ==<br />
Runestone, Uppland, Sweden<br />
== Copyright status ==<br />
GNU<br />
== Source ==<br />
Wikipedia</div>Fatman2021https://en.orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=File:Skylitzis_Chronicle_iLLUMINATION.jpg&diff=82131File:Skylitzis Chronicle iLLUMINATION.jpg2009-03-28T21:49:41Z<p>Fatman2021: Skylitzis Chronicle</p>
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<div>== Summary ==<br />
Skylitzis Chronicle<br />
== Copyright status ==<br />
CC<br />
== Source ==<br />
Wikipedia</div>Fatman2021